Zhang Guanglie presents himself as the embodiment of his own bereavement.

shrine for the Loyal and Righteous in Hangzhou, an essay by one of Zhang’s acquaintances narrating the family’s tragedy, the table of contents of a collection of poems by Zhang about his deceased mother, and a record of a garden that he built as a monument to her

omposed the preface to A Record of 1861 (Xinyou ji), a compilation of materials honoring his mother, Zhang Yao shi, whose murder at the hands of a Taiping soldier he had witnessed as a child of eight sui nearly two decades earlier

how the spirit of a deceased sister reassured her family.

isionary leader of the rebellion and his religious ideology.

nderlying causes for the rebellion, including government incompetence, economic problems, and natural disasters.

Taiping forces occupied Nanjing and attempted to establish a new system of government and land ownership

e time portrayed the dead as martyrs and used morally charged language to give their deaths political meaning.

remains relatively unknown outside of China.

Locke even grants absolute power to the master over them

Indeed, he says, ‘these two powers, political and paternal, are ... perfectly distinct and separate, are built on ... different foundations, and are given to ... different ends’

The law of nature allows us to regulate our own action, but also allows each to regulate others: if some people violate this natural law, each and every one of us can put ourselves in the position of a judge and punish the offender

He argued against hereditary servitude, but the laws governing slavery in the New World allowed for it.

t mentions that Locke strongly opposes slavery, he was involved in forming a colony where owning slaves was allowed.

ut certain groups like the poor, non-Europeans, and the physically and mentally disabled may lack the conditions to develop rationality.

critics argue that human beings act based on their passions and desires rather than reason.

rationality in liberal theory and how it can create hierarchies

This portrayal made them enemies of mankind and justified wars against them.

He argued that colonization of America provided a solution to this problem, as it was seen as "free" land available for European settlers.

xcludes women from the political sphere and confines them to the private sphere.

division between the private and political spheres in liberalism, arguing that it allows for hierarchies and domination to go unregulated.

property means that the interests of servants and other propertyless individuals may not be represented in the rules of the contract.

t there is a hierarchical order where some people become property owners while others must work for them.

individuals own themselves and their bodies, which gives them freedom.

the laws of nature, which forbid us from harming others or their property, provide a form of order in the state of nature.

humans are essentially rational beings and can live in peace with each other without a strong government.

It is important to note that Locke's theory only included certain individuals, propertied European men

Locke believed that humans could live peacefully with each other and regulate themselves according to natural laws, even without a governing power

colonization in America was important for Locke's conceptualization of the state of nature and his defense of enclosure. Indigenous Americans were portrayed as hunter-gatherers, and only enclosed lands were seen as producing value.

political actors and dynamics, not vague forces of development, are the central factor producing and mitigating inequalities in representation

option to pursue positive action in candidate selection.

ausal heterogeneity and the interaction of different factors.

International norms and organizations play a role in promoting quotas for women.

Quotas tend to emerge during periods of democratic innovation, as a way to establish the legitimacy of the new political system.

quotas for women are often seen as an extension of guarantees given to other groups based on factors like language, religion, and race.

Quotas can be seen as compatible with ideas of equality and fair access, and left-wing parties are generally more open to implementing them.

Some see them as a way to achieve justice and promote women's interests, while others adopt them strategically to compete with rival parties or maintain control within their own party.

egrees of dependence between women elected through quotas and the parties and elected officials who make their election possible.

Quotas can increase women's representation even without social and economic prerequisites. The adoption of quotas highlights the role of political elites in recruitment practices and the production and mitigation of inequalities in representation

including the mobilization of women's groups and the calculations of political elites

Women MPs face additional scrutiny and criticism compared to their male counterparts.

Parliament are based on traditional gender roles, where women are expected to be in supportive roles rather than as legislators

f Chinese modernity would not exist without the process of turning Summer Palace loot into art and commodities

In Beijing and Shanghai, new art complexes have been built following European and American standards, showing that they are considered global standards

Victoria and Albert Museum and the Summer Palace Museum in Beijing.

he Chinese government's efforts to repatriate looted objects and the refiguring of the Summer Palace as a people's park and memorial to imperialism

commodities in the capitalist market exchange.

"curiosities," which had historical significance as unique and unclassifiable objects.

British army had specific procedures for legalizing plunder

Plunder was seen as a natural part of war, and it was managed by categorizing it as "prize"

no laws

evelopment of a field of art history on China. The objects had various meanings, representing the British army, the humiliation of the Chinese emperor, and the global discourse on non-European curiosities. The sell-off of imperial art in East Asia was influenced by war and revolution. Recently, mainland Chinese companies intervened to repatriate some of the plundered objects.

displayed in museums, or kept by the conquering armies.

The Western powers believed they were bringing superior culture and trade opportunities to China, while the Chinese valued their own history and traditions

This text describes a violent incident that occurred in an orphanage in China in 1870.

nd some even called for armed invasion by Western countries.

This hindered China's industrialization efforts and prevented them from entering the capitalist era.

treaties signed with foreign countries took away China's ability to control its own tariffs and rivers.

missionaries in China used force, such as gunboats, to gain access and privileges for themselves and their converts.

treaties allowed foreigners to have control over certain areas in Chinese cities, where they collected taxes and enforced their own laws.

Manchu policy of opening up more ports for trade and foreign residence was seen as weak by the Han Chinese

ifferent groups within the Chinese government who had different opinions

Treaty of Nanjing, which gave Hong Kong Island to Britain, was the first of many unequal treaties between China and foreign nations.

Lin, a Chinese official, tried to stop the importation by demanding that foreigners turn over their opium stocks, but they refused.

economic crisis,

The British were benefiting economically from the opium trade, while the Chinese were becoming addicted to the drug.

The Chinese often made generalizations about Westerners based on their physical appearance and cultural practices.Some Westerners held negative views of the Chinese, due to trade disputes and cultural differences.

Catholic orders criticized the Jesuits for allowing converts to participate in Confucian rituals.

conquer territory and expand

hina and Western nations granted various rights and privileges to the foreigners, including extraterritoriality and the practice of Christianity

our consent or the legitimacy that this confers on the state that are important but instead the question of who (we believe) is able and willing to protect us

rights are not politically salient in the face of overwhelm­ ing sovereign power

importance of consent and the right to rebel against the sovereign under certain condition

humans need a sovereign ruler to overcome their natural tendencies towards suspicion and competition.

politics is shaped by conflict and competing interests.

Hobbes's contemporaries even suggested that his work justified rebelling against one's sovereign

duties of the sovereign and the potential for rebellion if the sovereign fails to properly regulate doctrine or deliver equitable criminal justice.

obligation towards our sovereign is because they provide us with security,

This rights transfer is not absolute, as subjects retain a right to self-preservation.Some scholars disagree about how impactful this retained right is.

argued that states can come about through conquest or agreement, and both forms of government are legitimate.

representation is a legal relationship

king or ruler must share characteristics with the people they represent.

eligious symbolism, such as comparing the government to a god-like creature called Leviathan,

create unity and prevent conflicts.

state is necessary for individuals to secure their own self-preservation.

While sovereigns have no direct obligations to their subjects, they have a duty to maintain peace and stability

self-interest and security in the political relationship

selectively in ways that reinforce the biases against disadvantaged subgroups.

which can result in less activity on disadvantaged-subgroup issues if they believe other organizations are responsible for those issues

advantaged subgroups, who have more resources and influence, receive disproportionately higher levels of attention.

Concern for disadvantaged-subgroup issues is generally lower than for majority or advantaged-subgroup issues.

frame their debates in ways that align with politically dominant views.

organizations frame advantaged-subgroup issues as if they affect more members than they do, while framing disadvantaged-subgroup issues as affecting a smaller portion of their membership.

political opportunities and threats, as well as public support and controversy, can impact advocacy organizations' levels of activity on policy issues

intersectional approach recognizes that marginalized groups face multiple forms of disadvantage and that their interests are not always addressed by single-issue organizations.

identity-based organizations may neglect the concerns of low-income and working-class people.

liberal advocacy groups

Organizations tend to prioritize issues that align with their previous work and that are recognizable as their own, while neglecting issues that cross boundaries

potential benefits, in terms of building a body of knowledge, of developing new indicators and perspectives and of honing existing ones, and of increasing our confidence about strategic and policy recommendations for women’s movement

rganized themselves across various venues and adapted their strategies to create and shape political opportunities.They have been able to constrain the choices available to politically active men and advocate for their own rights and interests

times of constitutional reform, changes in power between political parties, or revolutionary periods

women's movements have historically advanced their interests by taking advantage of certain political opportunities.

end to use less protest as a tactic compared to other social movements, and that their political opportunities may be structured differently due to their goals and their position within institutions.

discursive struggle, which involves shaping and controlling political discourse concerning women to influence public policy.

relying on the resources and support provided by these organizations.Feminists may choose to focus on campaigns and struggles

There is tension between feminist movements and political parties, as some movements prefer to maintain autonomy from parties in order to achieve their goals.

feminists did not have a political party to support them, which limited their influence on policies like abortion laws.

success of feminist movements working with left-wing parties varies,

important for political scientists to understand the conditions under which feminist movements mobilize and act, without assuming that they are always inclusive or representative of all women's movements.

individual actions, collective actions, and organizations focused on women's rights or broader human rights issues.

Women are located both externally and internally within institutions, influencing their actions and goals. Other research on Third World women's movements shows their impact on state policies and context.

separate banners were set up for Mongols and Chinese.

fall of the Ming dynasty, focusing on the reign of the Chongzhen emperor.

"For eighty days we kept our hair,"

Liu

en Ying-yuan

ecruited professional soldiers and invited rural militia units to join the defense

urban gentry tried to mediate

ifferent groups, including the sub-bureaucracy, the urban gentry, and the commoners from the villages.

to force the Chinese to accept the new regime, but it causes tension and resistance among the population.

They send trusted officials to the capital city and request that the tax and population registers be handed over to them.This shows that the Qing are trying to take over without completely replacing the local government.

pressure from statecraftsmen and gentry members for the emperor to allow them to form their own militia troops.

that village defense forces were controlled by assistant district magistrates, while later village troops were supposed to be controlled by an extraprovincial warden.

separate military apparatus.

hiang-yin

g Manchu dynasty was proud of their reconstruction of the imperial system

hinese supporters of the Qing gained power and stability, but at the cost of compromising their ethical values.

ing rulers saw the fall of the Ming as a result of corrupt military officers and greedy civil officials.The establishment of Qing rule was a long process that involved collaboration between the Manchus and Chinese officials.

officials even took matters into their own hands by hiring their own militias or training their own armies.

eople started questioning the authority of the emperor and the government's ability to govern effectively.

The social fabric of the empire began to unravel, with poverty and starvation increasing.

During the Ming dynasty in China, emperors stopped meeting with their ministers and officials, causing a loss of confidence in the government.

civilized envy the power of the conquerors.

gue that Hobbes's emphasis on self-preservation can justify the right to rebel against the state.

Hobbes acknowledges that if sovereigns fail to assert their authority or ignore the needs of their subjects, rebellion is likely.

This focus on practical power has led some to view Hobbes as more concerned with reality than theoretical legitimacy

but individuals have an obligation to obey the ruler regardless of any specific agreemen

This ruler can be a king or queen in a monarchy, a class in an aristocracy, or the people in a democracy

fear can lead people to give their consent to the sovereign

nternational anarchy and the lack of barriers to expansion may have contributed to the relegation of Indigenous peoples outside the community of states.

tion's population becomes too large for its institutions to support, it is acceptable for them to establish colonies elsewhere

acial hierarchy

Hobbes believed that before governments were established, people had the right to do whatever they needed to survive.This idea could be used to justify colonialism and expansion

state of nature and how it relates to international relations

natural parental authority and the rights of mothers.

aws of nature are consistent with Christian teachings

desires for the greater good.

moral system proposed by Hobbes

reason and the pursuit of peace

ere is constant insecurity and no room for progress or civilization

umans had equal rights to everything, even if someone else took something first

ntial threat to each other and there is no way to generate a hierarchy or enforceable moral standards.

state of nature where there is no political power and life is characterized by conflict and equality.

mechanism like the state is needed to enforce common terms and definitions about the world

cooperation between people can only happen if it is in their self-interest

ception of the world is influenced by physical stimuli and that there is no universal or objective experience of things.Our responses to the world are unique to us and influenced by how our bodies react to stimuli.Hobbes believed that all human actions are driven by our passions and desires.

rong government, there would be constant war and death

middle ground between identity and fluidity

The text raises concerns about the feasibility and potential dangers of rejecting fixed identities altogether

proliferation of identities rather than challenging fixed categories.

inking may only be accessible to certain individuals who do not conform to societal norms, while others may need to pass as "normal" to support dependents

may reinforce a romanticized version of queer identity, which can overlook the experiences of lesbians and women.

focus on identity can be limiting and disconnected from broader social issues.

ubversion that challenges traditional gender norms and promotes the mixing of multiple identities.

gender and sexual identity are not natural or fixed, but rather performative and constructed.

f "queer" politics, which rejects fixed identities and embraces unpredictability.

represent the capitulation of the powerless to the demands of the powerful.

uggested that it may socially determine what should be ‘normal’ sex for women and men.

sexual culture which emphasises the private

acceptance of the need to assert women’s sexual pleasure, and the increase of mediated sexual discourses, mean that agendas have shifted and diversified.

feminists’ ‘sex wars’,

individual and society or between freedom and control

The debate over pornography within feminism has been polarized

Germaine Greer argues that pornography is primarily a business that exploits both those who create it and those who consume it.

ecriminalizing the sex-trade industry would give sex workers more control and better working conditions

descriptions both disturbing and arousing

Dworkin's writings are powerful because they analyze violent pornography and include graphic depictions of sexualized violence.

It mentions that some feminists believe pornography harms women and perpetuates inequality, while others argue that it can provide opportunities for empowerment and self-expression.

“Some women who do not support porn politically still enjoy watching it, but they feel conflicted about the contradictions between their beliefs and actions,”

anti-sex

modern methods of assembly-line manufactur

Dutch East India Company eventually took over the Asian trade and imported millions of pieces of porcelain to the West.

ngland and the Iberian peninsula through Guido di Savino's sons

French potters learned the technique in Flanders and brought it back to France.

Tin-glazed earthenware spread to Antwerp and other parts of Northern Europe

nd it stimulated the adoption of tinglazing in Italy.

Porcelain in the Middle East and Europe was mainly used for decorative purposes in mosques and churches and did not have supernatural connotations

Southeast Asia, such as Borneo and the Swahili coast, where it became integrated into various aspects of life, including birth, marriage, feasting, combat, and death

orcelain vessels were seen as communal entities with cosmic power and were highly valued for their mysterious origins.

outheast Asia admired Chinese imports and stopped using their own pottery

Korea, Japan, and Vietnam all had interactions with Chinese ceramics and developed their own unique styles

The Chinese adopted the traditional aesthetic values of the Middle East, and drew upon their own traditional designs

rivately owned kilns into industrial complexes controlled by commercial syndicates.

ntrepreneurs and craftsmen in China and the Middle East that brought their ceramic traditions closer together.

Blue-and-white porcelain developed as a result of the influence of Song ceramics on the Middle East

bundance of loess soil

pessimism in the study of international relations and suggests that it is influenced by a colonial logic concerning the loss of empire

Persian Wars

only exotic forms

The text criticizes the way textbooks condense Aristotle's study of politics and his conservative views on preserving hierarchical order.