cooperate with ‘the perpetrator’ empathetically

aming wartime rape in this way thus promises change and emancipation along a sure teleological trajectory, which meets the urgency that our newly acquired awareness of rape as ‘planned and orchestrated as a tactic of war’

ape (or allegations of rape) became increasingly entangled in survival strategies, and in which women were encouraged to represent themselves as survivors of rape in order to establish themselves as legitimate recipients of humanitarian aid

desires for an Other in need of being saved by ‘the fitter Self ’

he methodology of unease led the authors to consider their own politico-ethical accountability to those who have been raped and those who have raped.

"victim-appropriation" to access donor funding, which led to women representing themselves as rape survivors to receive aid.

The researchers found that the soldiers' accounts of rape did not fit with the dominant "Rape as a Weapon of War" frame, and instead, they spoke about rationales for rape that did not coincide with strategic purposes.

his discourse frames rape as a strategic and systematic tactic used to achieve military and political goals, rather than as a result of individual deviance or sexual desire.

military is a key institution where boys and men learn to embody a particular form of masculinity that celebrates violence, order, and domination. This process involves the breaking down of the civilian identity and the building up of a macho soldier identity, which is associated with heterosexual masculinity. In contrast, women and femininity are stereotypically associated with peacefulness, life-giving, and a need for protection. This dichotomy renders women and girls vulnerable to rape in conflict and post-conflict settings. Rape is often used as a weapon of war to punish, humiliate, or torture women who are perceived as challenging traditional notions of femininity and masculinity. It is also used to destroy the fabric of society by targeting women who are seen as bearers of ethno-national identity. The rape of "enemy" women is a way to feminize and humiliate the enemy, and it is often used as a means to destroy the enemy's sense of masculinity and identity.

sexual violence is framed in the global policy debate, with rape now understood as a strategy or tactic of war that can be prevented or limited.

It also highlights the importance of linking research on MSV to broader conversations on rape culture and gender-based violence, as MSV has been largely left out of international discussions and academic work on sexual violence and rape culture.

he analysis reveals that media coverage is dominated by five themes: military justice, institutional structure, culture, gender/gender integration, and change. Gender is a relatively minor focus throughout media coverage, with attention to court cases dominating the majority of the coverage.

Institutional gaslighting includes political strategies to resist critiques of the institution or discredit evidence that undermines the authority or carefully crafted image of the institution.

Military exceptionalism is shaped by ideals of "good militaries" and "good soldiers," which are constructed as necessarily white, masculine, exclusive, and reproduced through the regulation of sex and the exclusion of women and racialized groups.

the book unite with a singular message of justified inaction, which helps answer the core question of how the public comes to normalize, accept, and diminish the problem of MSV.

edia coverage of MSV is shaped by gender bias and "rape myths," which are prejudicial, stereotyped, or false beliefs about rape, rape victims, and rapists.

United States, amphetamine consumption took off, with pharmaceutical companies manufacturing 3.5 billion tablets annually by the late 1950s.

e US military continued to use amphetamines heavily, with the drug becoming standard issue during the Korean War.

Germany did not experience the same post-war surge in stimulant use due to the dismantling of domestic production and tighter controls on Pervitin during the war.

Pharmaceutical companies sold the drug, marketed as "wake-a-mine," to the public, leading to widespread use and addiction.

The use of stimulants during World War II led to addiction problems among soldiers on all sides. In Japan, the problem was particularly severe, and the country experienced its first drug epidemic. Many soldiers and factory workers who had become hooked on the drug during the war continued to consume it into the postwar years.

he Japanese imperial government also used methamphetamine to enhance the performance of its soldiers and pilots. The drug, known as Philopon, was distributed to pilots for long flights and to soldiers for combat.

he British distributed 72 million standard-dose amphetamine tablets during the war, and the Americans used Benzedrine, a type of amphetamine, to help pilots stay awake during long flights.

Even then, the drug continued to be dispensed on both the western and eastern fronts, with 10 million methamphetamine tablets sent to the eastern front in the first half of 1942 alone.

use of Pervitin was instrumental in the success of the Blitzkrieg, allowing German troops to push ahead rapidly and catch their enemies off guard

drug was often dispensed in the form of chocolate bars, known as Fliegerschokolade (flyer's chocolate) and Panzerschokolade (tanker's chocolate), and was taken by a large proportion of officers

media portrayed Chinese and Korean individuals as suppliers of the drug, allowing the Japanese to cast themselves as victims of "pollution" by those they had wronged. This depiction implicitly absolved guilt for imperial opium operations on the Asian mainland. By 1954, 58.1% of suspects arrested for violating the Ban on Stimulant Drugs showed signs of hiropon addiction, and an estimated 1.5 million Japanese were stimulants users.

and its production and consumption remained legal until the late 1940s.

ver, Japan's defeat in 1945 led to the dismantling of its empire and the end of its drug economy.

After Japan's defeat in World War II, the country experienced a methamphetamine epidemic, which was eventually resolved through public campaigns against stimulant drugs.

participation in Pride marches blurs the lines between public and private spaces.

patriarchal confusion to challenge and transform military cultures, and that looking for sites of patriarchal confusion can be a productive way to respond to the challenge of promoting diversity and inclusion in the military. The study suggests that patriarchal confusion can be exploited as a strategy for disrupting and challenging contemporary patriarchy, which has practical implications for feminist politics.

intelligibility

where gender fails, feminists can demonstrate the radically contingent nature of patriarchy and open up possibilities to exploit this failure and engender patriarchal confusion.

These arrests often involved Asian and African men selling to white girls, reflecting Britain's racial and colonial relationships. The interwar years saw a shift in drug use, from medical or iatrogenic addiction to hedonistic drug use.

Aleister Crowley's network was the closest to the 1960s counterculture,

During World War II, there was a significant increase in the number of Chinese sailors coming to Britain, many of whom were opium smokers. This led to concerns about the spread of opium smoking, and there were attempts to set up a clinic to treat Chinese sailors.

concerned about the mixing of Chinese and native British populations, and the potential spread of opium smoking to the local population.

The practice was tolerated by some London magistrates, who viewed it as a cultural tradition rather than a criminal activity.

widespread practice among the Chinese population in Britain, particularly among seafarers.

development of drug cultures, including bohemian groups that consumed cocaine and other drugs in nightclubs and private parties.

The British System, which allowed doctors to prescribe heroin, morphine, and cocaine to addicts, was established in the 1920s, but it did not eliminate the drug trade.

1988 Convention Against Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances was adopted by consensus at a conference in Vienna in 1988. The Convention aimed to provide more effective weapons against the illicit drug trade, which had become a growing concern due to the influence of organized crime groups. The Convention is an instrument of international criminal law, designed to globally harmonize national criminal laws and enforcement actions to decrease illicit drug trafficking by criminalization and punishment.

1971 Convention on Psychotropic Substances expanded the scope of international drug control to include synthetic drugs

1961 Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs marked a shift in the international community's approach to drug control, moving beyond simply regulating the production and trade of drugs to focus on individual drug users.

the outbreak of World War II and the subsequent transfer of the League's drug control bodies to the United States marked a shift in the balance of power, paving the way for the United States to play a crucial role in shaping the emerging post-war world order, including international drug control.

1990s and 2000s saw a shift towards a more nuanced approach to drug control, with a greater emphasis on harm reduction and public health.

1980s, the international community continued to grapple with the issue of drug abuse and trafficking, leading to the formulation of the International Drug Abuse Control Strategy and the development of new treaties and soft law instruments.

reflected the influence of Western manufacturing countries, which sought to protect their commercial interests. The 1972 Amending Protocol to the Single Convention strengthened the international drug control system, but maintained its prohibitive ethos and supply-side focus. The Protocol expanded provisions for treatment, rehabilitation, and prevention measures, but did not fundamentally change the Single Convention.

focused on regulating the licit trade, which inevitably led to the development of an illegal market.

1936 Trafficking Convention sought to strengthen the existing transnational legal framework, but its complexity and encroachment upon legal areas considered sovereign by many states meant it failed to win widespread acceptance.

1931 Convention for Limiting the Manufacture and Regulating the Distribution of Narcotic Drugs introduced a proscriptive manufacturing limitation system, where parties were required to provide estimates of national drug requirements to the Drug Supervisory Body (DSB).

1925 International Opium Convention established a standardized import-export certification system to regulate drug movements between parties and included cannabis within a multilateral treaty for the first time.

international drug control system began in 1909 with the Shanghai Opium Commission, which aimed to address the "opium problem." The commission's recommendations led to the first legally binding multilateral treaty in 1912, which restricted opium use to medical purposes.

The Federal Bureau of Narcotics (FBN) focused on punishing users in the informal market, while largely ignoring the medical market. This led to a misreading of the situation, where authorities attributed the success of the medical market to the "good customers" rather than the more humane and effective policies. As a result, the medical market remained relatively invisible, and its lessons were not applied to future drug policy.

nhance the stigma of addiction and preserve his bureau's budget.

rise of heroin use

addiction as a moral failing rather than a disease. The law also led to the criminalization of drug use, with many people being arrested and imprisoned for drug-related offenses. The punitive approach to drug control was driven by a native-born Protestant desire to police and control non-white communities, and it was accompanied by public demonization of drug users and sellers.

African Americans in the South,

new drug crises were already brewing in both licit and illicit markets by the 1950s.

divide was fueled by anxieties about race, class, and sexuality,

esponse to the public health consequences of rising opioid and cocaine use in the late 19th century.

The Act was intended to gather information

Webb-Kenyon Act, which prohibited shipments of liquor to states that prohibited its sale. The prohibition movement gained strength, and in 1917, the House passed a Prohibition resolution, which eventually became part of the Constitution.

The public and congressmen believed that narcotics, including opiates and cocaine, had no value except as medicine and were associated with foreigners or alien subgroups.

n the early 20th century, the medical profession had a high rate of addiction, with around 2% of physicians being addicts.

practical significance of the law was still debated among the groups affected, and there was no general agreement on what would be the desirable or actual enforcement of the law.

The law was the result of international pressure, particularly from the Hague Convention, and was seen as a way to redeem the American government's international pledges.

law required records to be kept of all narcotics transactions, and copies of these records were to be kept by district internal revenue offices.

The AMA favored restrictive legislation, but also wanted to ensure that any bill had a maximum chance of passage. After several revisions, the Harrison Act was finally passed in December 1914.

Executive Committee to monitor the status of the legislation and make revisions.

he American Pharmaceutical Association called for a National Drug Trade Conference (NDTC) to bring together representatives from various trade associations to discuss the proposed legislation.

worked with Representative Francis Burton Harrison, a Democrat, to introduce a bill that would eliminate the use of narcotics except for medical purposes.

912, Hamilton Wright returned to the United States with the goal of increasing support for the International Opium Convention and ensuring the passage of domestic legislation to control narcotics.

The Hague Opium Convention was an international conference held in 1911-1912, where 12 nations gathered to discuss the regulation of opium and other drugs.

Dr. Wright believed that the Shanghai meeting gave the United States a moral obligation to appear with a clean slate before asking other nations to enact drastic legislation.

The resolutions included calls for the gradual suppression of opium smoking, the reexamination of national laws, and the control of morphine and other opium derivatives. The commission also recommended that nations not export opium to countries whose laws prohibit its importation. The meeting was significant because it marked the beginning of an American tradition in narcotic control, which emphasized the enactment of strict domestic legislation as an example to other nations.

he Shanghai Opium Commission was a meeting of 13 nations, including the United States, Great Britain, and the Netherlands, that convened on February 1, 1909, to discuss the opium problem.

Dr. Wright launched a national survey to collect information on the use of opium and its derivatives in the United States, and the State Department requested federal anti-narcotic legislation before the Shanghai meeting. This led to the passage of the first federal antinarcotic legislation in 1909, which banned the importation of smoking opium.

in the United States, there was growing concern about the opium trade and its impact on China.

The US government faced opposition from anti-opium groups,

The US acquired the Philippines in 1898, following the Spanish-American War, and with it, an opium problem.

and its management in state-buildin

worshiped Pan Hu, a legendary figure, as part of their New Year's celebrations.

he treatment is anecdotal

"Miao albums" that were compiled by officials responsible for governing frontier areas during the late Yongzheng or early Qianlong periods. These albums contained illustrations and texts describing the customs and practices of different ethnic minority groups in southwest China.

Qing Imperial Illustrations of Tributary Peoples was based on direct observation,

China saw a rise in ethnographic representation of different peoples, including the development of a systematic ethnography of ethnic minority groups.

including external characteristics, social activities, and mental constitution.

closely tied to colonization as part of European expansion.

Eckhout's works are examples of this term because they are products of the period in which the genre of the ethnographic portrait was created.

Albert Eckhout, which occupy a transitional space between the national type of the 16th and 17th centuries and the racial categories that developed in the 18th and 19th centuries.

7th century, the representation of skin color began to take on more importance, and engravings of Africans and Americans started to suggest differences in complexion.

The chapter also explores the development of anthropology and ethnography as academic disciplines, which began to take shape in the 19th century.

European explorers depended on local knowledge to find their way around.

The wonders of the East and West were seen as a source of entertainment and a way to fantasize about alternative worlds

lower-class social origins

“I anticipated some time ago that in [the] event of our securing Federal control of the sale and distribution of morphine and cocaine, the fiends would turn to Indian hemp, and for that reason incorporated that drug in the proposed act for the control of the interstate traffic in narcotics.”

Cannabis is rather an unimportant drug and that we have given undue attention to the whole subject of Cannabis

arbitrary cultural taboo

weed is commonly used among the old Mexican soldiers it is probable that El Paso became infected from that source.

cholars predict that marijuana smuggling from the US to Mexico will continue if Mexico's laws remain stricter than those in the US.

Traditional folk medical practices in Mexico may have also played a role in the demand for marijuana.

n the US, cannabis was initially seen as a potentially effective medicine, psychiatric tool, and stimulant for extraordinary visions and experiences.

The drug's reputation as a "killer weed" was likely influenced by Mexican ideas about marijuana, which associated it with violence, madness, and crime.

anti-marijuana laws followed this pattern, state by state, as a result of anti-Mexican sentiment.

stereotype of the marijuana user in Mexico was that of a dangerous, unpredictable madman,

"Mexican hypothesis" suggests that Mexican migrant workers brought marijuana to the US in the early 20th century, leading to its prohibition due to racial prejudice

In Mexico, the war on drugs was closely tied to US-Mexican relations, with the US exerting significant influence over Mexican drug policy. The Mexican government's efforts to prohibit drugs were often unsuccessful, and the country's drug trade continued to thrive

1940 Reglamento Federal de Toxicomanías in Mexico were key milestones in this process.

For example, in Mexico, the association between the Chinese and opium led to xenophobic attitudes towards drug use.

Mexico, with its own history of demonizing intoxicants and imposing laws to curb their distribution and abuse, was already in compliance with the Hague Convention's mandates and had created domestic laws that were harsher and more far-reaching than what was required by international law.

The United States, driven by domestic and foreign policy considerations, led the movement to codify international standards. The US experience in the Philippines and the lessons learned from the Chinese opium story led to the conclusion that only a system that restricted both supply and demand could be effective. The Hague Convention's Article 13 allowed the US to exert pressure on Latin American countries to adhere to international drug control standards, which ironically became a tool of imperialism.

Marijuana, on the other hand, was thoroughly demonized and eventually prohibited in 1920 as a drug that threatened to "degenerate the race."

dawn of independence in 1821, Mexico already had a long tradition of anti-drug rhetoric and regulatory mechanisms designed to curb "drug abuse." The situation continued to evolve, with the impermanence and flux of modernity inspiring both widespread concern about the harms of intoxicants and widespread use of them.

In Mexico, the creation of pariah drugs was a long-term process that involved various factors, including colonial conflicts, social prejudice, nationalism, economic interests, state-building, geopolitics, transnational intellectual currents, professional interests, and concerns about drug use and abuse.

This led to the emergence of a larger hemispheric network that linked Andean coca peasants to chemists, smugglers, and users in the United States and elsewhere. By the 1960s, agents of the U.S. Federal Bureau of Narcotics reported on recipes for coca paste, cocaine sulfates, and crude cocaine, which were refined in labs in Havana and later Colombia.

contentious nature of the region's epistemology, as well as the lack of corroboration from subsequent Dutch voyages.

image of an Ewaipanoma on his map of Guiana

corroborating

corroborating evidence for many elements of the cartographic vignettes.

armateurs' gift

analyzed in the context

as our beef butchers do over here

anthropology and other fields has revealed evidence that clearly corroborates certain accounts of indigenous anthropophagy among some tribes

generated authority for maps of distant regions.

co-constitution of masculinities and militaries is a key factor in their power.

hy military masculinities are the sites where boundary-making activity takes place, and Belkin suggests that it may be because nation-states and militaries are closely tied, and the military occupies an important symbolic position in nation-states.

male-male rape in military culture, which is both taboo and a means of socialization.

militarized masculinities may not just suppress the taboo or obscene but also incite and produce it.

militarized masculinities are about violence, but this violence is sanitized and legitimized, distinguishing it from other forms of violence.

Here they suggest that along with thwarted masculinity, and vulnerable and stigmatized positionalities, men in conflict settings do not uniformly benefit from patriarchal structures and the gender order

hat intersectionality should be used to challenge the hegemonic position of men (and some women) in national military contexts, and to acknowledge the structural inequalities in global peacekeeping economies.

alcohol was a normal part of social life

obacco, introduced in the 16th century, became a mass consumption c

US, where addiction was often linked to medical prescription, in Britain, opium use was more widespread and not necessarily connected to medical practice.

focus was on the quality of the drug and the lack of standardization, which led to accidental overdoses.

infant deaths were due to opium poisoning.

opium use was a normal part of everyday life in 19th-century England.

hypodermic syringe

often blamed the individual for their condition rather than acknowledging the role of external factors.

"addiction" eventually became widely accepted as the medical diagnosis of habitual narcotic use as a threatening and modern disease.

he Society for the Suppression of the Opium Trade was founded in 1874, focusing on the economic and moral aspects of the trade.

spread of opium smoking in England, particularly among the working class.

dens were seen as a threat to the English

opium use also reinforced the debt-labor system that bound them to exploitative merchants and criminal societies.

The anti-alcohol temperance movement,

medical concern about its consequences began to rise.

transatlantic adoption of the addiction concept by the First World War signaled the emergence of an Anglo-American conception of dangerous drugs

illicit consumption characterized by decadence and excess.

"anti-narcotic nationalism" in France.

n the late 1870s, attitudes towards psychotropic experimentation began to change with the introduction of new medical research on the dangers of addiction.

new drug legislation in 1916, criminalizing the consumption of drugs in public

deviant behaviors that would weaken and corrupt the French population and empire.

degeneration of France's population led to new medical research on the dangers of morphine addiction, alarming doctors and social reformers.

Cloaked with worries I was and I wept mutely into my sleeve

but I was so unused to travel that my progress was tardy. The third month had already begun now

China Sea as the edge of the world and is used to imagine the margins of the world as a realm of marvels and unknown dangers.

Benjamin's travelogue is a product of his imagination, influenced by biblical authority and rumors, rather than actual geographical knowledge.

Jewish utopia in the Arabian Peninsula, where 300,000 Jews live in 40 cities and 200 villages, free from the rule of gentiles.

personal experience and is likely an insertion made by him or a later editor.

universal Jewish community that despite its dispersion among various Muslim and Christian regimes still managed to preserve a strong sense of unity and cohesion

"a day's journey" to indicate close social interactions among Jewish communities,

rather a way to link places along a real but somewhat abstracted route.

travel times in the Sefer masa'ot may be unrealistic.

medieval understanding of travel writing.

mprecise unit of "a day's journey" and the parasang, an ancient Persian unit of measurement

partiality for southern French communities,

geography is experienced through human movement on specific routes.

Book of Travels as a literary work rather than a positivist account,

literary grid that allows the author to reflect on the medieval world from a Jewish perspective.

ourt's sexual economy and the role of wet nurses within it.

Confessions narrates the birth of Nijo's son as though it took place around the same time Empress Higashi-Nijõ bore a daughter

sexuality and religiosity

possibility of women's salvation outside dominant medieval Buddhist principles.

The regime's discourse was directed not only at domestic audiences but also at international ones, particularly in the West, where it sought to project its strength and legitimacy through civilizational language that focused on barbarizing the opposition.

discourse of racial militarism to justify its brutal crackdown on opposition groups, particularly those with Islamic affiliations.

ecular militarism also plays a role in othering and excluding those who seek a greater role for religion in political and public life.

reinforce a masculinist nationalism through militarism

Syria's militarist state has been shaped by its experience of colonization, and its militarism is directly connected to the country's anticolonialism

The ideal masculine identity was tied to militarism

Racial militarism played a significant role in shaping insider-outsider boundaries of national identity, with militarism performing an exclusionary function within the nation-state.

The construction of the "Other" was also racialized

militarism, which was used to facilitate the transition from one epoch of human development to the next.

militarism is not only shaped by colonialism but also perpetuates racial hierarchies and civilizational anxiety.

"militarization" is limited in its ability to fully capture the violence of liberal order, as it fails to acknowledge that there is no "good" liberal civilian past to which we can retreat.

It implies that universities were once purely civilian institutions that have been encroached upon by military values.

"militarization" framework elides: the historical context out of which the use of military equipment and tactics against Black activism develops.

militarization is a new process by which the exception (war) encroaches on the norm (peace).

The concept of militarization assumes a peaceful liberal order that is encroached on by military values or institutions, but this assumption is false.

The Periplus also describes the route from China to India, where silk was shipped by land via Bactria to Barygaza and then via the Ganges River to Limyrike. This passage provides evidence of connections between China and Rome during the first century of the Common Era. The trade links were significant, with many travelers focusing on trade, particularly silk, which formed an important part of the economies of several societies.

Zhang Qian's journey provided the Chinese with valuable information about the lands and peoples of Central Asia, and his report to Emperor Wudi helped to establish trade networks between China and Central Asia.

diplomatic mission to the Yuezhi nomads in modern-day Uzbekistan, led by an official named Zhang Qian. Zhang Qian's journey was a significant one, as it marked the beginning of Chinese travel to Central Asia.

Chinese princesses were sent to marry the Xiongnu leaders as part of the treaty agreement.

Peace and Friendship" accords, established a framework for relations between the Chinese and the Xiongnu that lasted for about 150 years.

he first emperor of the Han dynasty, Liu Bang, was a former official who had once been in charge of policing a section of the imperial highway system.

imperial courier network

The construction of a network of five great tree-lined 'fast roads' that converged on his capital at Xianyang linked the city to the eastern, southern, and northern regions of the empire.

The Chinese took an important lead in promoting travel, with formal state policy involved in promoting travel

whiteness operates as a dominant ideology,