Learners who knew all their letters at the end of grade 1 were on track with their reading by the time they reached grade 4. Learners with very limited letter-sound knowledge at the end of grade 1 were three years behind, only reaching grade 4 reading fluency levels in grade 7.

We need to understand what prevents basic reading skills from being acquired in grade 1 and 2 classrooms. A systemic programme to improve what teachers are taught at university is needed. In classrooms, diagnostic assessment of early grade reading skills can also help to detect where children are falling behind.

here were no longitudinal intervention research programmes combiningresearchers and teachers that had demonstrated in practice how to turn aroundfoundation phase classrooms in poor and rural communities. As summarised byvan der Berg, et al (2016:51), ‘unfortunately there have been almost no successstories, at least in terms of improving reading outcomes verified by a rigorousevaluation’. Moreover, while there was a small but important research communityfocusing on the importance of African languages in South African primaryschooling (prominent and influential is the work of PRAESA in early literacy, ledby Carole Bloch (e.g., 2002; 2000), there are no longitudinal attempts to applybilingual language theory systematically to the entire enterprise of foundationphase classroom teaching.

educationaldesign research methodology.