Those guidelines allow educators, under most circumstances, to copy a single chapter from a book an excerpt from a work that combines language and illustrations, such as a children's book, not exceeding two pages or 10 percent of the work, whichever is less a poem of 250 words or less or up to 250 words of a longer poem an article, short story, or essay of 2,500 words or less, or excerpts of up to 1,000 words or 10 percent of a longer work, whichever is less; or a single chart, graph, diagram, drawing, cartoon, or picture from a book, periodical, or newspaper.

Is the section of the original work used the most important part of the work? The less significant the portion of the work used, the more likely it is to be considered fair use.  

Is the amount of the original work used reasonable? The smaller the percentage of the work used, the more likely it is to qualify as fair use.

Is the original work out of print? Out of print works are more likely to be considered fair use.

s the copyrighted work published or unpublished? Published works are more likely to be considered fair use.

Is the use for nonprofit or educational purposes? Copyrighted works used for nonprofit or educational purposes are more likely to be considered fair use.

Does the new work transform the original work or offer something beyond the original? Copyrighted works that are altered significantly are more likely to be considered fair use.

IS IT FAIR USE?

"The fair use doctrine, established in a long line of court cases, provides a limited basis by which people can use a copyrighted work without getting permission from the creator," Willard told Education World. "The essence of the fair use doctrine is that a person is not using the work in such a manner that is, or has the potential of, diverting income from the creator."

The fair use doctrine was created to allow the use of copyrighted works for criticism and commentary, parody, news reporting, research and scholarship, and classroom instruction.

here are, as always, exceptions to the rule. For example, if your use of the materials falls under the fair use doctrine, you don't have to get permission to use copyrighted materials. Be careful, though. The fair use doctrine is not a license to steal!

s Fair Use a License to Steal? Part 2 of a Series on Copyright and Fair Use

Most copyright experts recommend this rule of thumb -- when in doubt, assume a work is copyrighted and ask permission to use it.

Because of the duration of copyright protection established in the 1976 revision of the U.S. Copyright Act, no works published after January 1, 1978, will pass into the public domain until at least 2048. Even anonymous works are copyright protected until 95 years after publication!

ideas, procedures, methods, systems, processes, concepts, principles, discoveries, or devices -- as distinguished from a description, an explanation, or an illustration.

titles, names, short phrases, and slogans; familiar symbols or designs; mere variations of typographic ornamentation, lettering, or coloring; mere listings of ingredients or contents

The short answer is that nearly every original, tangible expression is copyrighted immediately upon creation. An author does not have to register the work, announce that the work is copyright protected, or display the copyright symbol to enjoy copyright protection. All he or she must do is create an original work in tangible form.

U.S. copyright law, found in Title 17 of the United States Code,

Copyright, according to Dictionary.com, is "the legal right granted to an author, a composer, a playwright, a publisher, or a distributor to exclusive publication, production, sale, or distribution of a literary, musical, dramatic, or artistic work."

Copyrights and Copying Wrongs Part 1 of a Series on Copyright and Fair Use

Selection and integration of communications media

Structuring instructional processes

In distance education teaching is hardly ever an individual act, but a collaborative process joining together theexpertise of a number of specialists in design teams and delivery networks. The typical model is that of the courseteam of content experts, instructional designers and media specialists

Thus, the greater the transactional distance, the more such -autonomy the learner willexercise

little transactional distance learners

When a programme is highly structured and teacher-learner dialogue is non-existent the transaction between learners and teachers is high.

PROGRAMME STRUCTUREThe second set of variables that determine transactional distance are the elements in the course design, or the ways inwhich the teaching programme is structured so that it can be delivered through the various communications media.Programmes are structured in different ways to take into account the need to produce, copy, deliver, and controlthese mediated messages. Structure expresses the rigidity or flexibility of the programme's educational objectives,teaching strategies, and evaluation methods.

Teaching basic information courses in sciences and mathematics usuallyrequires a more teacher directed approach, with considerably less dialogue.

continuous rather than a discrete variable, a relative rather thanan absolute term

It is obvious that the nature of each communications medium has a direct impact on the extent and quality ofdialogue between instructors and learners.

INSTRUCTIONAL DIALOGUEDialogue is developed by teachers and learners in the course of the interactions that occur when one gives instructionand the others respond. The concepts of dialogue and interaction are very similar, and indeed are sometimes usedsynonymously. However, an important distinction can be made. The term 'dialogue' is used to describe aninteraction or series of interactions having positive qualities that other interactions might not have.

These clusters of variables are named Dialogue, Structure, andLearner Autonomy.

The transaction that we call distance education occurs between teachers and learners inan environmenthaving the special characteristic of separation of teachers from learners. This separation leads to special patterns oflearner and teacher behaviours. It is the separation of learners and teachers that profoundly affects both teachingand learning.

'connotes the interplay among the environment, the individuals and the patterns of behaviors in asituation

This universe of relationships can be ordered into a typology that is shaped around themost elementary constructs of the field - namely, the structure of instructional programmes, the interaction betweenlearners and teachers, and the nature and degree of self-directedness of the learner

What was stated in that first theory is that 'distance education is notsimply a geographic separation of learners and teachers, but, more importantly, is a pedagogical concept.

Michael G. Moore

ollowing areas for investigation, all of which could expand our under-standing of adult learning through SDL:

“the real challenge . . . is how totake the study of self-direction to a new level” (p. 543). The development ofanother instrument, a focus on the quality of the experience, studying howpeople engage and manage their self-directed learning, and asking about theethical use or misuse of SDL are suggestions for this new work (Brockett, per-sonal communication, September 28, 2000).

In an attempt to address this issue, Brockett et al. (2000) conducteda content analysis of 122 articles on self-directed learning published in four-teen periodicals between 1980 and 1998. They found that there has been asteady decline in the number of articles on SDL since the mid-1980s.

Current Assessment of SDL

wo scales of self-directedness, one measuringreadiness (Guglielmino, 1997), and one measuring personal characteristics(Oddi, 1986), have been used in a number of studies. In addition to these empir-ical studies, the relationship between autonomy and self-directedness has beenexplored.

the literature can be categorized accordingto the learner and the extent to which self-directedness is an a priori personalcharacteristic and associated with other variables such as educational level, cre-ativity, learning style, and so on.

For example, whereasa dependent learner needs more introductory material and appreciates lecture,drill, and immediate correction, a self-directed learner can engage in indepen-dent projects, student-directed discussions, and discovery learning

In Danis’s (1992) model, for example, learning strategies, phases ofthe learning process, the content, the learner, and the environmental factorsin the context must all be taken into account in mapping the process of SDL.

in such models not only the learner but the con-text of the learning and the nature of the learning itself are taken intoaccount.

The earliest models proposedby Tough (1971) and Knowles (1975) are the most linear, moving from diag-nosing needs to identifying resources and instructional formats to evaluat-ing outcomes.

self-directed learning positioned more for social and political action than indi-vidual learning. Both Brookfield (1993) and Collins (1996) call for a morecritical, political analysis of SDL. An example of this orientation is a recentstudy by Andruske (2000), wherein she investigated the self-directed learn-ing projects of women on welfare. She found that the women became “polit-ical change agents as they attempt[ed] to control and to initiate change intheir everyday worlds in response to oppressive external structures” (p. 11)

The third goal for self-directed learning is the promotion of emancipa-tory learning and social action.

our job as adult educators “to assistadults to learn in a way that enhances their capability to function as self-directed learners” (Mezirow, 1981, p. 137)

A second goal is the fostering of transformational learning (Brookfield,1986, Mezirow, 1985). Transformational learning as presented by Mezirow(see Chapter Two) posits critical reflection by the learner as central to theprocess (2000). This critical reflection is an “understanding of the historical,cultural, and biographical reasons for one’s needs, wants, and interests

Thosegrounded in a humanistic philosophy posit that self-directed learning shouldhave as its goal the development of the learner’s capacity to be self-directed

The Goals, the Process, the Learner.

Tough (1967, 1971), building onthe work of Houle (1961), who provided the first comprehensive descrip-tion of self-directed learning as a form of study. Tough studied and describedthe self-planned learning projects of sixty-six Canadians. The uncoveringand documenting of this type of learning—learning that is widespread, thatoccurs as part of adults’ everyday life, and that is systematic yet does notdepend on an instructor or a classroom—generated one of the major thrustsof research in the field of adult education

Knowles (1975) him-self contributed to the self-directed learning literature with a book explain-ing the concept and outlining how to implement it through learningcontracts.

ery likely, it will continue to be thewindow through which adult educators take their first look into the worldof adult education.”

(Grace, 1996, p. 386). Gracepredicts that because “Knowles has reduced the adult learner to a techni-cally proficient droid, operating in a world where formulaic social planningand self-directed learning mantras are the order of the day,” he “is in dan-ger of being left behind” (p. 391)

Critics have pointed out that there is little or no acknowledgmentthat every person has been shaped by his or her culture and society, thatevery person has a history, and that social institutions and structures define,to a large extent, the learning transaction irrespective of the individuallearner.

Based in humanistic psychology, Knowles’s version of andragogy pre-sents the individual learner as one who is autonomous, free, and growth-oriented.

Here, andragogy is unconditionally on the side of human agencyand the power of the individual to shed the shackles of history and circum-stance in pursuit of learning”

nineteenth-century Germany, where the educational programs of the work-ers’ movement sought to differentiate themselves from children and school-ing (Savicevic, 1998)

Dusan Savicevic

Henschke (1998), citing several others, makes a point thatandragogy with its humanistic philosophical underpinnings is well suited todemocratically oriented societies.

Between 1970 and 1980 he moved froman andragogy versus pedagogy position to representing them on a continuumranging from teacher-directed to student-directed learning. He acknowledgedthat both approaches are appropriate with children and adults, depending onthe situation. For example, an adult who knows little or nothing about a topicwill be more dependent on the teacher for direction; at the other extreme,children who are naturally curious and who are “very self-directing in theirlearning outside of school. . . could also be more self-directed in school”(Knowles, 1984, p. 13)

The second area of criticism, ongoing to this day, is the extent to whichthe assumptions are characteristic of adultlearners only.

the adult learneras someone who (1) has an independent self-concept and who can direct hisor her own learning, (2) has accumulated a reservoir of life experiences thatis a rich resource for learning, (3) has learning needs closely related to chang-ing social roles, (4) is problem-centered and interested in immediate appli-cation of knowledge, and (5) is motivated to learn by internal rather thanexternal factors.

European concept of andragogy, which he defined as “the art and science ofhelping adults learn,” was contrasted with pedagogy, the art and science of helping children learn (Knowles, 1980, p. 43).

AndragogyIn 1968, Malcolm Knowles proposed “a new label and a new technology”of adult learning to distinguish it from preadult schooling (p. 351)

Further, deficits and declines are oftenshown to be functions of noncognitive factors such as level of education,training, health, and speed of response (Merriam and Caffarella, 1999

development of intelligence tests

Moreover, when Lorge focused on adults’ ability tolearn rather than on the speed or rate of learning (that is, when time pressurewas removed), adults up to age seventy did as well as younger adults

Since older adults had less formal educationand less opportunity to develop test-taking skills, it only appeared that theywere less-capable learners.

Tests of older adults against young people under timed conditionsmade it appear that being younger meant being a better learner. Lorge (1944,1947) later pointed out that adult test scores were related to previous educa-tion and skills, not to age per se.

. Thorndike and others approachedadult learning from a behavioral psychological perspective. That is, people weretested under timed conditions on various learning and memory tasks.

The question that framed much of the early research on adultlearning was whether or not adults couldlearn.

How People Read With adult literacy rates now over 80 percent worldwide, reading is a primary form of communication for most people. But how do we read? And what should designers know about reading?

THREE articles

At the end of this module, you will be able to: 1. Categorize current research in distance education; 2. Search for quality research articles for different topic areas, practices, gaps, and inquiry methodologies in distance education; 3. Read and interpret educational research; 4. Identify and summarize trends in distance education research; and 5. Write an annotated bibliography; and 6. Analyze and evaluate a case in distance education.

Initial post: By Wednesday at 11:59 PM Responses to others: By Sunday at 11:59 PM

But technology has a trailing edge as well as a down side, and studying how computers are put to use raises serious issues in the politics of work and mechanisms of social control.

Teachers preferred pencils without erasers, arguing that students would do better, more premeditated work if they didn't have the option of revising. The students won this one, too: eraserless pencils are now extremely rare.

My difficulty was compounded, though, because the most authoritative-sounding poster, in the conventional sense of authoritative-someone who evoked prin-ciples of physics and engineering to demonstrate that flats were no more com-mon or disastrous with latex than butyl tubes, and who claimed to have written books on bicycle repair-was clearly outshouted by posters attesting From Pencils to Pixels 31 the frequency and danger of rupturing latex inner tubes. In the end I chose to stay with butyl, since everyone seemed to agree that, though heavier than latex, it was certainly not the worst thing in the world to ride on.

editorial changes or formatting introduced during the digitization process, changes in accompanying graphics (for example, online versions of the Washington Post and the New York Times use color illustrations not found in the paper editions). And of course digital text can be corrupted on purpose in ways that will not be apparent to unsuspecting readers.

But just as writing in the middle ages was able to move beyond earlier limitations, computer word processing has now moved beyond the texts made possible by earlier technologies by adding not just graphics, but animation, video, and sound to documents

If you type this: ABCombining Special EffectsAB. To combine special effects, simply insert one control character after another. For example, your ABWordstarABAVTMAV cursor may look like this: HAHIAHNAHZ. IABaABI = l(aAVxAVAT2AT + aAVyAVAT2AT + aAVzAVAT2AT) You (might) get this: Combining Special Effects. To combine special effects, simply insert one control character after another. For example, your Wordstar™ cursor may look like this: •.

Interestingly, when the typewriter was developed, the key-board was designed to slow down writers, whose typing was faster than the machine could handle; initially computers too were slow to respond to key-strokes, and until type-ahead capability was developed, typists were frustrated by loud beeps indicating they had exceeded the machine's capacity to remem-ber what to do.

Mainframe line editors were so cumbersome that even computer program-mers preferred to write their code with pencil and paper.

As people discovered that tele-phones could further romantic liaisons, guardians of the public morality voiced concern or disgust that sweethearts were actually making kissing noises over the phone.

when I was growing up in New York in the 1950s, my family regularly called MEridian 6-1212 to find out the time, and WEather 7-1212 for the temperature and forecast.

Futurologists predicted that the telephone would replace the school or library as a transmitter of knowledge and information, that medical therapy (includ-ing hypnosis) could be delivered and criminals punished over the phone through the use of electrical impulses.

Henry Thoreau set about to improve his father's pencil. According to Petroski, Thoreau began his research in the Harvard Library. But then, as now, there was little written on pencil manufacture. Somehow, Thoreau learned to grind graphite more finely than had been done before and to mix it with clay in just the right proportion, for his improvements on the pencil-making process, combined with the high import duty imposed on British pencils after the War of 1812, led to great demand for Thoreau pencils.

Staedtler learned to mix ground graphite with sulfur. He and his rival, Faber, founded German pencil dynasties that also survive to this day.

Conte's process that Conte became synony-mous with pencil, and Conte crayons are still valued by artists.

This process allowed the French to produce their own pencils, and it also permitted manufacturers to control the hardness of the lead, which in turn controlled the darkness of the mark made by the pencil. (The more clay, the harder the lead, and the lighter and crisper the mark; less clay gives a darker, grainier mark).

Thoreau devoted ten years of his life to improving pencil technology at his family's pencil factory. It was this pencil technology, not inherited wealth or publication royalties, that provided the income for one of the greatest writers of the American renaissance.

"They are but improved means to an unimproved end."

Pencils were also of use to artists. In fact the word pencil means "little tail;' and refers not only to the modern wood-cased pencil but to the artist's brush. Ink and paint are difficult to erase: they must be scraped off a surface with a knife, or painted over.

Early pencils had knobs at one end so that they could be fastened with string or chain to a note-book, creating the precursor to the laptop computer.

cybertext.

Questions of validity came up because writing was indeed being used to per-petrate fraud. Monks, who controlled writing technology in England at the time, were also responsible for some notorious forgeries used to snatch land from pri-vate owners.

Written documents did not respond to questions-they were not interactive. So the writers and users of documents had to develop their own means of authentication. At first, seals, knives, and other symbolic bits of property were attached to documents in an attempt to give them credibility. Medieval English land transfers also adopted the format of texts already established as trustworthy, the Bible or the prayer book, complete with illuminations, in order to convince readers of their validity.

Michael Clanchy (1993) reports that when writ-ing was introduced as a means of recording land transfer in 11th-century England, it was initially perceived (and often rightly so) as a nasty Norman trick for stealing Saxon land.

he pronunciation of the "1" in falcon (com-pare the I-less pronunciation of the cognate name Faulkner) and the "h" in such "th" combinations as Anthony and Elizabeth (compare the nicknames Tony and Betty, which reflect the earlier, h-Iess pronunciation).

Conversations become letters. Sagas become novels. Customs become legal codes. The written language takes on a life of its own, and it even begins to influence how the spoken language is used.

(ostensibly):

including writing itself, were initially met with sus-picion as well as enthusiasm.

We normally assume that writing was invented to transcribe speech, but that is not strictly correct. The earliest Sumerian inscriptions, dating from ca. 3500 BCE, record not conversations, incantations, or other sorts of oral utter-ances, but land sales, business transactions, and tax accounts (Crystal 1987).

Computer gurus offer us a brave new world of communications where we will experience cognitive changes of a magnitude never before known.

Great Divide theory of writing, see Street 1984). Historians of print are fond of pointing to the invention of the printing press in Europe as the second great cognitive revolution (Eisenstein 1979).

According to one school of anthropology, the invention of writing triggered a cognitive revolution in human development (for a critique of this so-called Great Divide theory of writing, see Street 1984). Historians of print are fond of pointing to the invention of the printing press in Europe as the second great cognitive revolution (Eisenstein 1979)

Plato was one leading thinker who spoke out strongly against writing, fearing that it would weaken our memories.

its perfection at John Thoreau and Company, as well as in the factories of Conte in France, and Staedtler and Faber in Germany, the humble wood pencil underwent several changes in form, greatly expanded its functions, and devel-oped from a curiosity of use to cabinet-makers, artists and note-takers into a tool so universally employed for writing that we seldom give it any thought.

Petroski observes that pencil making also involves a knowledge of dyes, shellacs, resins, clamps, solvents, paints, woods, rubber, glue, printing ink, waxes, lacquer, cotton, drying equipment, impregnating processes, high-temperature furnaces, abrasives, and mixing (Petroski 12)

Henry Petroski (1990) portrays the development of the wood-cased pencil as a paradigm of the engineering process, hinging on the solution of two essential problems: finding the correct blend of graphite and clay so that the "lead" is not too soft or too brittle;

Henderson, who is a director of the Lead Pencil Club, a group opposed to computers and con-vinced that the old ways are better, further boasts that Thoreau wrote his anti-technology remarks with a pencil that he made himself. Apparently Samuel Morse, the developer of the telegraph, was lucky that the only letter bombs Thoreau made were literary ones.

Most people think of writers as rejecting technological innovations like the computer and the information superhighway, preferring instead to bang away at manual typewriters when they are not busy whittling new points on their no. 2 quill pens.

While I was glad not to be a direct target of this mad bomber, I admit that I felt left out.

In attacking society's growing dependence on communication technology, the Unabomber (1996)

So procedures for authentication and reliability must be developed before the new technology becomes fully accepted. One of the greatest concerns about computer communications today involves their authentication and their potential for fraud.

Tied up as it is with value-laden notions of literacy, art, and science, of history and psychol-ogy, of education, of theory, and of practicality, we often lose sight of writing as technology, until, that is, a new technology like the computer comes along and we are thrown into excitement and confusion as we try it on, try it out, reject it, and then adapt it to our lives-and of course, adapt our lives to it.

When we write with cutting-edge tools, it is easy to forget that whether it consists of energized particles on a screen or ink embedded in paper or lines gouged into clay tablets, writing itself is always first and foremost a technology, a way of engineering materials in order to accomplish an end.

I found that I had become so used to composing vir-tual prose at the keyboard I could no longer draft anything coherent directly onto a piece of paper.

Once, called away to a meeting whose substance did not command my unalloyed attention, I began drafting on my conference pad a memo I needed to get out to my staff by lunchtime.

They'll worry later about how to get me to pay for this service.

President Clinton promised to have every eight-year-old reading, and to connect every twelve-year-old to the National Information Infrastructure.

The Governor of Illinois thinks that hooking up every school class-room to the Web will eliminate illiteracy.

Passions, Pedagogies, and 21st CenturyTechnologiesGail E. HawisherCynthia L. Selfe

Use Web sites to check for color blindness effects There are several sites you can use to check how your images or Web site will appear to someone who has color blindness. Here are two I recommend: www.vischeck.com colorfilter.wickline.org

If you want to be sure that people notice a change in their visual fields, add additional visual cues (such as blinking) or auditory cues (such as a beep).

nattention blindness or change blindness.

affordances.

Put the most important information (or things you want people to focus on) in the top third of the screen or in the middle.

canonical perspective.

If a face on a Web page looks at another spot or product on the page, people will also tend to look at that product. This doesn’t necessarily mean that they paid attention to it, just that they physically looked at it.

People recognize and react to faces on Web pages faster than anything else on the page (at least by those who are not autistic).

We look where the face looks Eye-tracking research shows that if a picture of a face looks away from us and toward a product on a Web page (see Figure 4.1), then we tend to also look at the product. Figure 4.1. We look where the person looks

the fusiform face area (FFA) allows faces to bypass the brain’s usual interpretive channels and helps us identify them more quickly than objects. The FFA is also near the amygdala, the brain’s emotional center.

The visual cortex is more active when you are imagining something than when you are actually perceiving it (Solso, 2005). Activity occurs in the same location in the visual cortex, but there is more activity when we imagine. The theory is that the visual cortex has to work harder since the stimulus is not actually present.

The Geon Theory of Object Recognition There have been many theories over the years about how we see and recognize objects. An early theory was that the brain has a memory bank that stores millions of objects, and when you see an object, you compare it with all the items in your memory bank until you find the one that matches. But research now suggests that you recognize basic shapes in what you are looking at, and use these basic shapes, called geometric icons (or geons), to identify objects. Irving Biederman came up with the idea of geons in 1985

If you want users to concentrate on a certain part of the screen, don’t put animation or blinking elements in their peripheral vision.

Although the middle of the screen is important for central vision, don’t ignore what is in the viewers’ peripheral vision. Make sure the information in the periphery communicates clearly the purpose of the page and the site.

According to John Medina (2009), the retina receives electrical patterns from what we look at and creates several tracks from the patterns. Some tracks contain information about shadows, others about movement, and so on. As many as 12 tracks of information are then sent to the brain’s visual cortex. There, different regions respond to and process the information. For example, one area responds only to lines that are tilted to 40 degrees, another only to color, another only to motion, and another only to edges. Eventually all of these data get combined into just two tracks: one for movement (is the object moving?) and another for location (where is this object in relation to me?).

THE NAME OF THE GAME Why "Distance Education" Says It All

Traditional paper platforms. for example. arc more accessible. ubiquitous. and easier to use than Internet tech-nologies.

Examples include the research and notable contribution to distance education theory of Garrison ( 1989. 2000). Holmberg ( 1989. 2003). Keegan ( 1990), Moore ( 1990. 1991. 1993). Peters ( 1994, 2003), Saba ( 1989. 2003) and Wedem-eyer ( 1971 )

e- learning includes a wu.k set o l computer applica11om, and pro-cesses. including computer-based learning. Web-based learning. , irtual classroo1m. and digital collahoration.

technologically aggregated

technologically reliant

re!-.ource enrichme nt

information dissemi-nation

The di,tributed learning ,1rmcg1c,. "h1ch 111cludc distance learning. offer ;1 radical 11<''' direction ror cduca11on The} mcnrpo-rmc flexible and open learning method, a, ,,ell w, modified and specaall~ created lcammg rc,ource,. The) abo mcKltf) and mcorporJte th.: ~• prncuces of the trad1-11onal :approachc, 10 lcam1ng I Una, crsn) of Plymouth. :!0021

Di!>tance education is the organi1..a1ional apparat u, and process of providing educational cxpencncc, ro learners at a d1c;1ance

Current I). however. distance learning is used. with im:reasing frequency. in place of distance ed11ca1io11.

Theory and Distance Education:A New Discussion

For example, the new theories' focus onface-to-face instruction eliminates the advantage of time-independentlearning that traditional theories of distance education value.

Recent emerging theories based on the capabilities ofnew interactive telecommunications-based audio and video systems sug-gest that distance education may not be a distinct field of education

Keegan (1986)

Distance education is a more industrialized form ofeducation.

The equivalency approach is uniquely American. It is based on corevalues held almost sacred in American education, such as the use of reg-ular classroom teachers to facilitate the teaching and learning process,local control, small class size, rapport between teacher and learner, andpersonalized learning.

The objective of theinstructional designer of distance education is to provide for appropriate,equivalent learning experiences for each student

The more equivalent the learning experiences ofdistant learners are to those of local learners, the more equivalent will bethe outcomes of the educational experiences for all learners. Thisapproach to distance education advocates designing a collection ofequivalent learning experiences for distant and local learners, eventhough they may be different for each student.

The theoretical analyses of virtual education, however, have not yetbeen addressed by the literature: Is virtual education (interactive, livetelevised instruction) a subset of distance education or to be regardedas a separate field of educational endeavor? (p. 18)

Equivalency Theory

Perraton's (1988) theory of distance education is composed of ele-ments from existing theories of communication and diffusion as well asphilosophies of education.

Holmberg, distance education ischaracterized by the following statements:

Holmberg's (1989) theory of distance education, what he calls "guid-ed didactic conversation," falls into the general category ofcommunication theory. Holmberg noted that his theory had explanatoryvalue in relating teaching effectiveness to the impact of feelings ofbelonging and cooperation as well as to the actual exchange of ques-tions, answers, and arguments in mediated communication

Theory of Interaction and Communication

Peters concluded that for distance teaching to be effective, the princi-ple of division of labor is a critical element.

Based on economic and industrial theory,Peters proposed the following new categories (terminology) for the anal-ysis of distance education:

Peters stated that from many points ofview, conventional, oral, group-based education was a pre-industrialform of education,

Theory of Industrialization of Teaching

He notes that in traditional school settings learners are very dependenton teachers for guidance and that in most programs, conventional anddistance, the teacher is active while the student is passive.

Moore classifies distance education programs as "autonomous"(learner-determined) or "non-autonomous" (teacher-determined)

three questions

Moore's theory of distance education is a classification methodfor distance education programs.

it examines two variables ineducational programs: the amount of learner autonomy and the distancebetween teacher and learner.For Moore (1994), distance education is composed of two elements,each of which can be measured. The first element is the provision fortwo-way communication (dialog); some systems or programs offergreater amounts of two-way communication than others. The second ele-ment is the extent to which a program is responsive to the needs of theindividual learner (structure);

1. The student and teacher are separated.2. The normal processes of teaching and learning are carried out inwriting or through some other medium.3. Teaching is individualized.4. Learning takes place through the student's activity.5. Learning is made convenient for the student in the student's ownenvironment.6. The learner takes responsibility for the pace of learning, withfreedom to start and stop at any time.

1. Be capable of operating any place where there are students—evenonly one student—whether or not there are teachers at the sameplace, at the same time;2. Place greater responsibility for learning on the student;3. Free faculty members from custodial-type duties so that moretime can be given to truly educational tasks;4. Offer students and adults wider choices (more opportunities) incourses, formats, and methodologies;5. Use, as appropriate, all the teaching media and methods proveneffective;6. Mix and combine media and methods so that each subject or unitwithin a subject is taught in the best way known;7. Cause the redesign and development of courses to fit into anarticulated media program;8. Preserve and enhance opportunities for adaptation to individualdifferences;9. Evaluate student achievement simply, not by raising barriersregarding the place, rate, method, or sequence of student study;and10. Permit students to start, stop, and learn at their own pace.

American Theory of Independent Study.

fourth category seeks to explain distance education through a synthesisof existing theories of communication and diffusion as well as philoso-phies of education.

Keegan classified theories of distance education into threegroups: theories of independence and autonomy, theories of industrial-ization of teaching, and theories of interaction and communication.

In his landmark work, The Foundations of Distance Education(1986),

One consequence of such understanding and explanation will be thathypotheses can be developed and submitted to falsification attempts.This will lead to insights telling us what in distance education is to beexpected under what conditions and circumstances, thus paving theway for corroborated practical methodological application,

Many cringe at the thought of a discussion of theory.

The practice of many teachers providing slides that are loaded with text to their students may be attributed to the fondness of some students for slides of this format, which obviates them from the need of having to take notes.

he disadvantages are that it requires a screen, a slide carousel, projection equipment, and power and at least partial darkness for viewing

With the evolution of technology, also evolving is a generation which has a preference for multimedia to written texts; who have grown up with increasing attachment to technological innovations and are interested in interactive learning

During the preclinical years, simulations of experiments, interactive atlas of dissections and anatomical crosssections and simulation programs for learning clinical skills have been incorporated.

The introduction of PowerPointthus saved millions of man-hours every year[16].

German art historian Bruno Meyer, manufactured and used projected lantern slides called Glasphotogrammein art history lectures.

epidiascope

Considering the health reasons and cost-effectiveness, by 1990s most of the class rooms were replaced with whiteboards instead of blackboards

he use of the stone slate and stylus -an ancient teaching/learning tool before paper and graphite pencils came into common use, was used in rural schools in the developing world as late as the mid-20thcentury[

It is of ironic significance that today, another kind of tablet is one of the latest technologies that is used in teaching/learning.

What is preserved, as the earliest writings are those that were carved on stone tablets

earliest times of human civilization. It began in 1801

Abstract:

or threatens

Passions, Pedagogies, and 21st CenturyTechnologies

it is not self-study or a nonacademic learning environment.