suchasbroadcastinglecturesindistanceeducation[1],deliveringrecordingsofin-classlectureswithface-to-facemeetingsforreviewpurposes[2],anddeliveringlecturerecordingsbeforeclasstoconserveclasstimeandflippingthedayforhands-onactivities[3].Inaddition,thenumberoffor-profitorganizationswhousetrainingoradvertisingvideosisincreasingrapidly.

Datacollectedfrom40studentswhoenrolledintoavideo-assistedcoursesuggestthatusagestylesaffectstudents’engagementtovideomaterials.

Chapter18HowVideoUsageStylesAffectStudentEngagement?ImplicationsforVideo-BasedLearningEnvironmentsMichailN.Giannakos,LetiziaJaccheriandJohnKrogstie

The Kemp Model of Instructional Design

Dick and Carey Model

(a) learning tasks, (b) supportive information, (c) procedural information, and (d) part-task practice

Learning tasks provide the backbone of the educational program; they provide learning from varied experiences and explicitly aim at the transfer of learning.

four-component instructional design (4C/ID)

Feedback is a constant loop and not something that should come right at the end of the e-learning course or training module. So, it is important for courses to have feedback inserted at the right places during instruction.

Feedback needs to be specific in nature, as well as confirmatory and corrective. This way the learners know what they did right and wrong.

Giving learners an indication of the desired outcomes help them calibrate their approach appropriately. This can be done via examples, case studies, and modelling various learning strategies like concept mapping, visualizing, role playing.

because it establishes some important relationships and concepts

Michael Hanley, discusses this very subject in his article

Dale H. Schunk, in his book Learning Theories

Successive Approximation Model (SAM)

Understanding Instructional Design

TABLE 1. Practices to maximize student learning from educational videos

Finally, the utility of video lessons can be maximized by matching modality to content. By using both the audio/verbal channel and the visual/pictorial channel to convey new infor-mation, and by fitting the particular type of information to the most appropriate channel, instructors can enhance the germane cognitive load of a learning experience.

Weeding, or the elimination of interesting but extraneous information that does not contribute to the learning goal, can provide further benefits. For example, music, complex back-grounds, or extra features within an animation require the learner to judge whether he or she should be paying attention to them, which increases extraneous load and can reduce learn-ing.

The benefits of signaling are complemented by segmenting, or the chunking of information in a video lesson. Segmenting allows learners to engage with small pieces of new information and gives them control over the flow of new information.

Signaling, which is also known as cueing (deKoning et al., 2009), is the use of on-screen text or symbols to highlight important information. For example, signaling may be provided by the appearance of two or three key words (Mayer and John-son, 2008; Ibrahim et al., 2012), a change in color or contrast (deKoning et al., 2009), or a symbol that draws attention to a region of a screen (e.g., an arrow; deKoning et al., 2009).

Specifically, instructors should seek to minimize extraneous cognitive load and should consider the intrinsic cognitive load of the subject when constructing learn-ing experiences, carefully structuring them when the material has high intrinsic load.

These concepts are more fully articulated and to some extent critiqued in an excellent review by deJong (2010

deJong T (2010). Cognitive load theory, educational research, and instruc-tional design: some food for thought. Instr Sci 38, 105–134.

The third component of a learning experience is extraneous load, which is cognitive effort that does not help the learner toward the desired learning outcome.

The first of these is intrinsic load, which is inherent to the subject under study and is determined in part by the degrees of connec-tivity within the subject

he second component of any learning experience is germane load, which is the level of cognitive activity necessary to reach the desired learning outcome—for example, to make the comparisons, do the analysis, and elucidate the steps necessary to master the lesson.

This processing is a prerequisite for encoding into long-term memory, which has virtually unlimited capacity. Because working memory is very limited, the learner must be selective about what information from sensory mem-ory to pay attention to during the learning process, an observa-tion that has important implications for creating educational materials

Cognitive load theory, initially articulated by Sweller (1988, 1989, 1994), suggests that memory has several components. Sensory memory is tran-sient, collecting information from the environment. Information from sensory memory may be selected for temporary storage and processing in working memory,

because it can be well suited to illu-minating the abstract or hard-to-visualize phenomena that are the focus of so many biology classes (e.g., Dash et al., 2016; see Video Views and Reviews features in CBE—Life Sciences Education for other examples).

Several meta-analyses have shown that technology can enhance learning (e.g., Means et al., 2010; Schmid et al., 2014),

three elements: how to manage cognitive load of the video; how to maximize student engagement with the video; and how to promote active learning from the video.

M3 ADDIE

JPEG (Joint Photographics Experts Group)

Ruelas_C_OIP

In fashioning a fine work of art, the artist creatively uses a number of widely accepted design clements ( unity, emphasis, balance, space, shape, color, etc.) . This same principle applies to instructional design. The effective instructional designer considers all the clemenL~ of the process to design a creative instructional approach. A good design goes beyond just effectiveness. It is efncient, engaging, and interesting.

Premise 1: The instructional design process requires attention to both a ~-ystematic procedure and specificity for treating details within the plan.

Where do they come from? For the most part, the responsibility of design falls on individual teachers. Not surprisingly, however, many teachers find them-selves unprepared for the task, and the implementations of the new strategies suffer as a result (Desimone, 2009; Mishra & Koehler, 2006; Niess, 2005). By learning more about instructional design, teachers should become better equipped either to create hig h-quality, smdent-centered lessons or to adapt commercial materials to fit their course needs.

Table 9.3. Analysis Questions for the Sponsor and the Chief Operating Officer

What do you envision these people will do over the next two,three, and four years? How is it different from what they do now?

wouldn’t it makesense to make that program widely available? Jobs are changing. We need best-in-breed practices here. What can we do to move that dispersed and diversegroup forward?”

Table 9.1. Analysis and Evaluation: Close Kin.

Performance SystemsThe performance-improvement professionals used performance-architecture toolsto repair an existing performance system. They used two of our favorites, the Per-formance Map and the Iceberg Model

Systematic Approach.Performance-improvement professionals use a system-atic approach to organize projects. They follow sequential steps and create areplicable process to identify needs and recommend solutions. The steps include

A colleague explains the difference this way: when the cheftastes the soup, that is performance feedback; when the customer tastes the soup,that is value feedback (personal communication, Lynn Kearny, April 21, 2004

The performer or worker level is focused on the actions of the individual. Ittherefore seems best to put the performer in the Process box in Figure 2.2

System(s) Viewpoint.

good corporate citizens

Focus on results, using our knowledge of the business we are supportingto link performance-improvement initiatives to business needs and goalsand add value for the stakeholder

We define a technology as a set of empirical and scientific principles and theirapplication.

Performance technology (PT) is the technology that comprises all ofthe variables that affect human performance

Establish partnerships and workcollaborativel

coupled with the valuable work of such notables as DaleBrethower, Judith Hale, Paul Harmon, Lloyd Homme, Tom Gilbert, Robert Mager,Margo Murray, Geary Rummler, Harold Stolovitch, Don Tosti, and others. Thesepractitioners are among those responsible for building the foundation of humanperformance technology (HPT); they have contributed to the principles of perfor-mance technology through their work and documented it in publications

A third form of marginalia that provides information is the scholium. Often referred to using the plural scholia

Glosses, in her assessment, were often added to assist book readers with foreign and obscure words.

Jackson categorizes three “basic particles:” the gloss.d-undefined, .lh-undefined { background-color: rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.2) !important; }.d-undefined, .lh-undefined { background-color: rgba(0, 0, 0, 0.5) !important; }1Chris Aldrich, the rubric, and the scholium.

Marginalia: Readers Writing in Books, Heather Jackson, a professor of English at the University of Toronto, presents an extensive study of book annotation from 1700 into the twentieth century.

multimodality

annotation serves five equally important, and sometimes overlapping purposes: Providing information, sharing commentary, expressing power, sparking conversation, and aiding learning.

And when Sam Anderson wrote his 2011 essay What I Really Want Is Someone Rolling Around in the Text, he recalled experiencing annotation as additive, useful, social, a means to collaborate with a text, and as “meta-conversation running in the margins.”

Marginalia

The analysis will produce the knowledge, skills and abilities (KSAs) of the sales team, which will highlight the areas you will want to tackle with training

Bloom’s Taxonom

Evaluation provides a feedback link back into the analysis phase of the ADDIE model. For good instructional designers, the ADDIE model is actually not linear, but more of a loop

The first question that needs to be addressed in evaluation is, did the learners achieve the goals that were set out for the instruction?

The characteristics of the target audience

The need for instruction

instructional designer is focused on collecting data that will impact the design of instruction

But first I want to tell you a little story that made me realize the importance of being able to name things, since naming these principles is the key to having power over them.

Gather Your Materials! One of the most important parts of documenting: making sure you have everything you need!

Instructables use photos and text (and sometimes video!) to teach skills and techniques. Instructables are authored by people of every skill level - from beginners to professionals! Don’t worry if you’re new to sharing your creations because the Instructables community is very friendly and supportive.

First of All: What Is an Instructable? An instructable is a step-by-step guide of how to do something... anything! Have a thing you're good at? Share an instructable and teach others how to do that magical thing you do!

Equity, diversity and inclusion are all on the line with this great responsibility, which is why I believe that implementation of equal opportunity should be worked into the core fabric of the system

As I mentioned before, although taking into account the statistics and regulations that have been enforced is incredibly vital in describing how seriously institutions need to take accessibility and implementing necessary measures, it is imperative that we think beyond that.

nstitutions (as well as parents and communities) should advocate for increased funding so that teachers can be equipped with the resources and strategies to meet the needs of their learners.

Many of the root causes of these consequences are sociological and systemic which is why the challenge for educational institutions to offer equal opportunities can be complex and therefore needs to be approached in a way that values the lives at the center of the issue

Dyslexia: The most recognized and best-researched learning issue. Trouble with reading in a number of ways — including trouble sounding out words, rhyming or understanding a text.

More than a billion people in the world live with some form of disability, disproportionately affecting vulnerable populations living in poverty. According to the World Health Organization, children with disabilities experience lower educational achievements.

are our current education systems accessible and inclusive, and do they allow for true education to be experienced by ALL students?

Although awareness of accessibility in education for those with learning disabilities is growing and widely recognized, implementation has proved to be a challenging endeavor.

Accessibility in K-12 Education: Why Its Importance Transcends a Mere “Check in a Box”

ADDIE Model

Cluster 1–Intensive(19, 6.55%): the most active group representingstudents who undertook a variety of learning strategies, amongwhich strategies 3 (focus on reading materials) and 2 (focus on sum-mative assessment) were the most prominent. This group also repre-sents the students with the highest median values of midterm andfinal exam scores. Considering the high level and diversity of engage-ment of these students, we refer to them as theIntensive group.

ClusteringClustering was used fo

RQ2.What is the association between the identified patterns in stu-dents' learning behavior (i.e. manifestations of the adopted learningstrategies) when preparing for face-to-face sessions in a FL setting andstudent overall course performance?

This is an expected association since regulation is about monitoringand adapting learning strategies for the purpose of improving the effec-tiveness and/or efficiency of studying

RQ1.Can we detect patterns in student learning behavior that are in-dicative of the learning strategies that students adopted when prepar-ing for face-to-face sessions in a FL setting? If so, what kinds oflearning strategies do the identified patterns suggest?

1.3. Analytics for detecting patterns in student behavior

The study relied on student interaction data obtained from the stu-dents' engagement with and completion of the preparatory learning ac-tivities during the active period (weeks 2–13) of the 2014 delivery ofthe course. In particular, the analyses were based on the events data(trace data) collected from the Learning Management System (LMS)

lecture preparation activities. These activ-ities retained the same structure andflow throughout the course. Theactivities included

two key elements: 1) a setof preparatory online activities to be completed prior to the plenaryface-to-face session with the instructor (i.e., the lecture); and 2)redesigned lecture framed as an active learning session requiring stu-dents' preparation and participation in collaborative problem solvingtasks (Pardo & Mirriahi, 2017).

there is a new opportunity to draw on alternate analytic approaches de-rived from thefields of learning analytics and educational data mining

considering that FL encourages students'sense of autonomy and ownership of learning and is quite different tothe‘traditional’lecture model, it is important to shed some light onhow students approach and manage this new learning setting, andhow they organize and regulate their learning process.

However, students frequently lack thenecessary skills, time, and/or mo-tivation to fully participate in pre-class activities and therefore do notcommit to the level of involvement in the learning process that effec-tively complements the intended design

Flipped learning (FL) is a form of blended learning that requires stu-dents' active participation in learning activities both before and duringface-to-face sessions with the teacher

While active learning has clear bene-fits for student learning outcomes, the process of implementation isoften more complex thanfirst anticipated

5. Conclusions andFuture Directions

Four different strategies in the lecture class were designed and incorporated to improve the students’ learning. Using class discussion and working on problems in groups were both very interactive, as the students debated different solutions and approachesto problems. This activity worked especially well for shy students who might be reluctant to ask their questions in class. They felt more comfortable to ask their questions or give their comments while their instructor was circulating in the class.

3. Results3.1 Students’ Performance

.3Data Collection

2.2.1Intervention

1.2 Background

e see 30-40% drop out and failure rates in this course, similar to national trends (Benford & Gess-Newsome, 2015)

Human Anatomy and Physiology I (A&P) is a gateway course into healthcare careers in all two and four-year colleges in U.S. This fundamental course builds the foundations for the other higher level courses in any healthcare majors such as Nursing, Physical Therapy, Occupational Therapy, Radiology Technician, Paramedics, and Nutrition.

Exam performance among the students in flipped-classroom and active learning activitiesimproved significantly relative to the control group [Mean ± SD: (76.93±18.33 vs 67.8±18.81), p<0.001

Therefore, in the present study we compare incorporating flipped classroom and minimal class discussion (control group) with flipped classroom and active learning activities (experimental group) in A&P and their impacts on both students’ exam performance and their satisfaction with the course.

Reports on the effect of integration of flipped classrooms and whether it improves learning are contradictory for different disciplines.

The first step in this process was to evaluate the course content and outline student learn-ing outcomes for each topic based on the philosophy of intentional content usage rather than content coverage (Lujan &DiCarlo, 2006; Hamdan et al., 2013). Learningoutcomes were classified into three categories –factual knowledge, conceptual knowledge, and procedural knowledge

Shylaja Akkaraju

In future semesters, I will alter the design of the classroom activities to include formative assessments to test conceptual understanding and step up opportunities for self-assessment both inside and out of the classroom

By practicing intentional content rather than merely covering the content, it is possible to lower extrinsic cognitive load

Formative assessment

Theoretical implications of this study

The flipped learning approach has a direct positive impact on student motivation, partici-pation, preparedness, confidence, and performance. For the instructor, the flipped learn-ing approach can save time that can be used for deeper conceptual understanding and ap-plication

The difference was that in the flipped learning model, students were given the opportunity for pre-training followed by retrieval practice and more class time was devoted to student centered learning activi-ties.

Results

report the effectiveness of the flipped learning method in the lecture portion of the course, and for the topic of cardiovascular physiology, in partic-ular. As a comparisonof general student performance, I present data from four consecu-tive semesters prior to the flipped learning approach. These lecture class sizes were also between 18-24 students with a total of 92 students

A learner that is in the process of mastering the threshold concept is said be undergoinga threshold experience, which occurs within a liminal spaceor learning environment.

A threshold concept is defined as a challenging concept that can be troublesome, trans-formational, and integrative to the learner (Meyer &Land, 2003). The concept is trou-blesome because it is conceptually difficult, alien, or tacit (Meyer,Land, & Baillie,2010).

An annotated bibliography is a list of citations to books, articles, and documents. Each citation is followed by a brief (usually about 150 words) descriptive and evaluative paragraph, the annotation. The purpose of the annotation is to inform the reader of the relevance, accuracy, and quality of the sources cited.

Learning StylesConcepts and Evidence

Learning Styles: Concepts and Evidence

The Scientific Status of LearningStyles Theories

Introduction to the Instructional Design Process

S

S

IN SEARCH OF QUALITYAn Analysis of e-Learning Guidelines and Specifications

M2 Theory & Scholarship

0:11 / 12:00LiveScroll for details M2 Research Categorization

Baddeley (1986) conducted a long series of studies on human memory and information processing. Others, including Nelson Cowan (2001), folllowed in his footsteps. The research now shows that the “magical” number is four.

Psychologist Alan Baddeley questioned the seven plus or minus two rule. Baddeley (1994) dug up Miller’s paper and discovered that it wasn’t a paper describing actual research; it was a talk that Miller gave at a professional meeting. And it was basically Miller thinking out loud about whether there is some kind of inherent limit to the amount of information that people can process at a time.

What is interesting, though, is that working memory can be tested; then, if the child’s score is low, the results can be used to plan an intervention.

Figure 15.2 shows different decorative fonts. The first font is relatively easy to read; the others become progressively more difficult. They make it hard for the brain to recognize the patterns of the letters.

Learn more about font type, typography, and readability If you’re interested in reading the research about font type, typography, and readability, check out these two great Web sites:

Figure 14.3. Different parts of the brain process words

An online tool for calculating readability Some word processing software has the Flesch-Kincaid formula built in. Or you can use this online tool to calculate the reading level of a particular passage:

If you’re not a biologist, then it might take you a long time to understand what that paragraph says. You can read the paragraph, but that doesn’t mean you understand it. New information is assimilated more thoroughly when it is plugged into existing cognitive structures.

We use peripheral vision when we read

Our eyes look forward during most of the saccades, but they look backward 10 to 15 percent of the time, rereading letters and words.

3. "Teach students how to request permission." Students should know how to find the owner of a copyrighted work and how to ask permission to use that work. The sites below provide templates for writing permission-request letters and resources for finding the creators of copyrighted works when the information isn't readily available. Obtaining and Giving Permissions This site provides a list of agencies that grant permissions to use copyrighted materials. Copyright Permission Request form Copyright Scroll to the bottom of this page for Nancy Willard's permission-request template.

2. "Teach students to request permission when in doubt about the status of a particular work or the appropriateness of their use of that work." Students should understand that the materials they want to use are probably protected by copyright; that the creator owns copyrighted wor

1. "Help students learn about the value of created works and develop respect for the creators by discussing the importance of such works on the advancement of society." Students should understand that copyright law is designed to protect the financial interests of those who create original work;

Establish a process to ensure that all materials on the district Web site are closely evaluated. Provide professional development for teachers and instruction to students about defamation, invasion of privacy, harassment, and copyright law. Include an immunity provision in the policy. Take prompt action if accusations are made. Be prepared to stand up for staff or students if false accusations are made.

Willard also suggests that federal legislation is needed to provide schools with immunity from financial damages in the event infringing material is posted on the school Web site. "I made a recommendation for such legislation in my testimony to the Web-based Education Commission,"

"School districts are liable for any copyright violations committed by their staff, and the area with the greatest potential for liability is the district's public Web site," Nancy Willard agreed. "The Digital Millennium Copyright Act provides interactive service providers with an exemption from monetary damages for copyright infringement but only if the provider is not directly involved with the placement of the material.

"The unfortunate result of the situation is that teachers are in an incongruent position of trying to push the limits of the fair use exception at the same time that they have an obligation to teach students about respect for copyright law."

District Liability and Teaching Responsibility Part 5 of a Series on Copyright and Fair Use

Ask permission, and teach students to ask permission, before using any material about which there is a question.

Develop collaborative efforts with other teachers to create and disseminate public domain materials for educational use.

Use public domain resources whenever possible. Materials created by the federal government are all in the public domain, and many public agencies have created educational materials.

In 1981, a congressional subcommittee developed guidelines for off-air taping of television and radio broadcasts for educational use. Those guidelines allow educators to tape a radio or television broadcast for instructional (not entertainment) use if the program is recorded simultaneously with the broadcast. the program is being broadcast without charge. the program is recorded only in response to a specific request. the program is recorded (but not necessarily used) in its entirety. the program is not altered. the tape is retained by the educational institution for no longer that 45 days after the date of the recording. the tape is used only once with each class during the first ten consecutive school days of the 45-day retention period. the tape is used from the tenth to the 45th day of the retention period for teacher-evaluation purposes only.

The guidelines developed in 1976 for the educational use of music include the following: Multiple copies of sheet music may be copied in an emergency (for an imminent performance) to replace purchased copies that are not available, provided purchased replacement copies are substituted as soon as possible. For academic purposes other than performance, multiple copies of excerpts of works may be made, provided the excerpts don't include more than 10 percent of the whole work or make up a part of the whole that would constitute a performable unit, such as a section, a movement, or an aria. The number of copies may not exceed one copy per student. For academic purposes other than performance, a single copy of an entire performable unit (section, movement, aria, etc.) may be made if the unit is out of print or available only in a larger work. Sheet music that has been purchased may be edited or simplified if the fundamental character of the work is not distorted and that lyrics are not altered or added. A single copy of a sound recording of a student performance may be made for evaluation or rehearsal purposes and may be retained by the educational institution or individual teacher. A single copy of a sound recording of copyrighted music may be made from sound recordings owned by an educational institution or an individual teacher for the purpose of constructing aural exercises or examinations and may be retained by the educational institution or individual teacher. Copying to create, replace, or substitute for anthologies, compilations, or collective works; copying works intended to be consumable, such as workbooks, exercises, or standardized tests; copying for the purpose of performance (except in an emergency); copying as a substitute for purchase; and copying without the inclusion of the copyright notice are not permitted.

MUSIC, TV, AND VIDEOTAPES

The guidelines do not allow users to make multiple copies of different works as a substitute for the purchase of books or periodicals copy the same works for more than one semester, class, or course copy the same work more than nine times in a single semester use copyrighted work for commercial purposes use copyrighted work without attributing the author.

Those guidelines allow educators, under most circumstances, to copy a single chapter from a book an excerpt from a work that combines language and illustrations, such as a children's book, not exceeding two pages or 10 percent of the work, whichever is less a poem of 250 words or less or up to 250 words of a longer poem an article, short story, or essay of 2,500 words or less, or excerpts of up to 1,000 words or 10 percent of a longer work, whichever is less; or a single chart, graph, diagram, drawing, cartoon, or picture from a book, periodical, or newspaper.

Is the section of the original work used the most important part of the work? The less significant the portion of the work used, the more likely it is to be considered fair use.  

Is the amount of the original work used reasonable? The smaller the percentage of the work used, the more likely it is to qualify as fair use.

Is the original work out of print? Out of print works are more likely to be considered fair use.

s the copyrighted work published or unpublished? Published works are more likely to be considered fair use.

Is the use for nonprofit or educational purposes? Copyrighted works used for nonprofit or educational purposes are more likely to be considered fair use.

Does the new work transform the original work or offer something beyond the original? Copyrighted works that are altered significantly are more likely to be considered fair use.

IS IT FAIR USE?

"The fair use doctrine, established in a long line of court cases, provides a limited basis by which people can use a copyrighted work without getting permission from the creator," Willard told Education World. "The essence of the fair use doctrine is that a person is not using the work in such a manner that is, or has the potential of, diverting income from the creator."

The fair use doctrine was created to allow the use of copyrighted works for criticism and commentary, parody, news reporting, research and scholarship, and classroom instruction.

here are, as always, exceptions to the rule. For example, if your use of the materials falls under the fair use doctrine, you don't have to get permission to use copyrighted materials. Be careful, though. The fair use doctrine is not a license to steal!

s Fair Use a License to Steal? Part 2 of a Series on Copyright and Fair Use

Most copyright experts recommend this rule of thumb -- when in doubt, assume a work is copyrighted and ask permission to use it.

Because of the duration of copyright protection established in the 1976 revision of the U.S. Copyright Act, no works published after January 1, 1978, will pass into the public domain until at least 2048. Even anonymous works are copyright protected until 95 years after publication!

ideas, procedures, methods, systems, processes, concepts, principles, discoveries, or devices -- as distinguished from a description, an explanation, or an illustration.

titles, names, short phrases, and slogans; familiar symbols or designs; mere variations of typographic ornamentation, lettering, or coloring; mere listings of ingredients or contents

The short answer is that nearly every original, tangible expression is copyrighted immediately upon creation. An author does not have to register the work, announce that the work is copyright protected, or display the copyright symbol to enjoy copyright protection. All he or she must do is create an original work in tangible form.

U.S. copyright law, found in Title 17 of the United States Code,

Copyright, according to Dictionary.com, is "the legal right granted to an author, a composer, a playwright, a publisher, or a distributor to exclusive publication, production, sale, or distribution of a literary, musical, dramatic, or artistic work."

Copyrights and Copying Wrongs Part 1 of a Series on Copyright and Fair Use

Selection and integration of communications media

Structuring instructional processes

In distance education teaching is hardly ever an individual act, but a collaborative process joining together theexpertise of a number of specialists in design teams and delivery networks. The typical model is that of the courseteam of content experts, instructional designers and media specialists

Thus, the greater the transactional distance, the more such -autonomy the learner willexercise

little transactional distance learners

When a programme is highly structured and teacher-learner dialogue is non-existent the transaction between learners and teachers is high.

PROGRAMME STRUCTUREThe second set of variables that determine transactional distance are the elements in the course design, or the ways inwhich the teaching programme is structured so that it can be delivered through the various communications media.Programmes are structured in different ways to take into account the need to produce, copy, deliver, and controlthese mediated messages. Structure expresses the rigidity or flexibility of the programme's educational objectives,teaching strategies, and evaluation methods.

Teaching basic information courses in sciences and mathematics usuallyrequires a more teacher directed approach, with considerably less dialogue.

continuous rather than a discrete variable, a relative rather thanan absolute term

It is obvious that the nature of each communications medium has a direct impact on the extent and quality ofdialogue between instructors and learners.

INSTRUCTIONAL DIALOGUEDialogue is developed by teachers and learners in the course of the interactions that occur when one gives instructionand the others respond. The concepts of dialogue and interaction are very similar, and indeed are sometimes usedsynonymously. However, an important distinction can be made. The term 'dialogue' is used to describe aninteraction or series of interactions having positive qualities that other interactions might not have.

These clusters of variables are named Dialogue, Structure, andLearner Autonomy.

The transaction that we call distance education occurs between teachers and learners inan environmenthaving the special characteristic of separation of teachers from learners. This separation leads to special patterns oflearner and teacher behaviours. It is the separation of learners and teachers that profoundly affects both teachingand learning.

'connotes the interplay among the environment, the individuals and the patterns of behaviors in asituation

This universe of relationships can be ordered into a typology that is shaped around themost elementary constructs of the field - namely, the structure of instructional programmes, the interaction betweenlearners and teachers, and the nature and degree of self-directedness of the learner

What was stated in that first theory is that 'distance education is notsimply a geographic separation of learners and teachers, but, more importantly, is a pedagogical concept.

Michael G. Moore

ollowing areas for investigation, all of which could expand our under-standing of adult learning through SDL:

“the real challenge . . . is how totake the study of self-direction to a new level” (p. 543). The development ofanother instrument, a focus on the quality of the experience, studying howpeople engage and manage their self-directed learning, and asking about theethical use or misuse of SDL are suggestions for this new work (Brockett, per-sonal communication, September 28, 2000).

In an attempt to address this issue, Brockett et al. (2000) conducteda content analysis of 122 articles on self-directed learning published in four-teen periodicals between 1980 and 1998. They found that there has been asteady decline in the number of articles on SDL since the mid-1980s.

Current Assessment of SDL

wo scales of self-directedness, one measuringreadiness (Guglielmino, 1997), and one measuring personal characteristics(Oddi, 1986), have been used in a number of studies. In addition to these empir-ical studies, the relationship between autonomy and self-directedness has beenexplored.

the literature can be categorized accordingto the learner and the extent to which self-directedness is an a priori personalcharacteristic and associated with other variables such as educational level, cre-ativity, learning style, and so on.

For example, whereasa dependent learner needs more introductory material and appreciates lecture,drill, and immediate correction, a self-directed learner can engage in indepen-dent projects, student-directed discussions, and discovery learning