ClinVar is an archive that collects data about the relationship between gene variants and phenotypes. It contains more than 400,000 records.

ClinVar is free to use—try looking up information about AVPR2. Search for AVPR2 to find out more about the 878G>A mutation that the authors looked at.

Fanconi anemia (FA) is a rare genetic condition resulted from nonfunctional DNA repair mechanisms.

Because DNA repair is vital for every cell in the body, all organs are affected when repair mechanisms don't function properly. Organs that contain frequently dividing cells (such as skin) are the most affected. People with Fanconi anemia have bone marrow defects, organ abnormalities, and an increased risk of some cancers.

FANCC codes for a protein involved in the Fanconi anemia (FA) disease pathway.

This pathway is activated when the cell DNA gets damaged. The FANCC protein is a part of a complex responsible for recognizing this DNA damage and activating repair mechanisms.

Stands for, Peptidylprolyl Isomerase B (also known as Cyclophilin B), which codes for a protein that regulates protein folding in the cytoplasmic reticulum. Some mutations of PPIB result in impaired bone development.

DNA base editing is a technique which allows precise conversion of one nucleotide into another without any template sequence.

A base editor is a fusion protein made up of a protein that recognizes specific DNA sequences (for example, Cas9), and a deaminase that can convert one amino acid to another (i.e., cytidine [C] to uridine [U] or adenosine [A] to inosine [I]).

Because of the geometry of the proteins, this conversion can only happen in a certain range of nucleotides, called the target window.

Genes are transcribed into proteins by codons, which are made up of sequences of three amino acids. Mutations that occur in numbers divisible by three will not affect the reading frame, but those not divisible by three will cause a shift in the reading frame. Generally, a mutation in-frame will not disrupt the protein function and can be handled by the cell. A frame-shift mutation will completely inactivate a protein and can be very detrimental to cellular function in some cases.

For example:

Original sequence: THE CAT WAS RED

Frame shift mutation: ATH ECA TWA SRE D

Non-frame shift mutation: THE BIG CAT WAS RED

Cpf1 is a nuclease that is analogous to Cas9.

Cpf1 differs from Cas9 in a number of ways. The most important one is that when Cpf1 cuts DNA, it leaves overhangs. It also requires different PAM sequences, which are short sequences that help the system distinguish self DNA from non-self DNA.

Cfp1 has the potential to be more accurate than Cas9, and can sometimes be used when there are no sequences that Cas9 can use as a target.

These techniques allow researchers to modify a chosen nucleic acid sequence.

The most widely used technologies are TALENs (transcription activator-like effector nucleases), ZFNs (zinc finger nucleases) and CRISPR/Cas9 (clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats/CRISPR associated protein 9).

CRISPR is the most popular since it can be programmed to new sequences using a guide RNA, whereas other tools must be engineered at the protein level, which is difficult and time consuming. The focus of this paper is a variation of CRISPR that uses Cas13.

Organized into distinct, independent groups

A deviation or disturbance from the norm.

From an island

A group of islands

The current geological age where human activity is the dominant influence on climate change and the environment.

The exchange of genetic material between two different organisms. In the case of T4 bacteriophage, this is done by infecting a single E. coli cell with multiple phages. The phage genomes then recombine and produce new variants.

Chemically induced mutations occur when a scientist uses chemicals to alter a DNA sequence.

A class of RNA that acts as a messenger of genetic information, delivering the code from DNA to a ribosome where it is translated into amino acids, eventually resulting in a polypeptide or protein.

That is, a specific sequence of bases encodes a specific sequence of amino acids. Within this code, which is used by all living organisms, there are only four kinds of bases and 20 kinds of amino acids.

Here, bases refer to the chemical pendants—side groups of molecules—that are found on the backbone of nucleotides. Nucleotides consist of a sugar called deoxyribose, a phosphate group, and one of five bases.

An example of a base is guanine.

The minimum energy needed to overcome the attractive forces between atoms at the sliding interface is referred to as energertic barriers.

This force occurs due to the out of plane interaction between adjacent graphene layers.

A general term used to describe the intermolecular forces of attraction between molecules.

See more from Khan Academy

An unsatisfied valence of an immobilized atom.

Nitrogen gas with no water vapor.

The "mode" refers to the number that occurs most frequently in a set.

The "modal grade" is the course grade that occurred most frequently.

Referring to traits that are controlled by two or more genes at different places on different chromosomes.

When two or more genomic regions are derived from a single ancestor.

Type of natural selection where one phenotype is favored over others. This causes the frequency of alleles to shift in the direction of that phenotype.

An individual that has two different forms of a particular gene on homologous chromosomes.

Referring to a particular gene in which all of the alternative forms of that gene are identical on homologous chromosomes.

Observable characteristics of an individual.

Refers to a variation in a single base pair within a DNA sequence.

An essential copying of DNA into RNA, the first step of gene expression.

Measure of the genetic differences in and among populations due to genetic structure.

Measures the difference between the average genetic value of selected organisms and the average genetic value of all the organisms in the population.

Used to explain the relationship between a dependent variable and one or more independent variables.

Referring to traits that are transmissible from parent to offspring.

Groups of one or more populations.

Referring to the study of the evolutionary history and relationships of various biological species.

The formation of new species.

Groups of genes inherited from a single parent.

The process of measuring or comparing features such as DNA sequences, variation of structures, gene functions, or gene expression.

Event in which a lineage rapidly diversifies into more species with different adaptations. These events lead to speciation.

Relating to the structure or form of living organisms.

When two competing species overlap in habitat, natural selection may drive one population to use resources that are not used by individuals of the other population. This allows two similar species to coexist.

Describing a branch of biology that deals with relationships and interactions among organisms and the environment.

About 10 times. Let's say zeolites (a conventional adsorbent) could adsorb 2 liters, then MOF-801 could adsorb an order of magnitude greater—that is, 20 liters.

Gases that cannot easily be turned into liquids. In this case, noncondensables refers to the gases present in air which are mainly dioxygen, dinitrogen, and argon.

The amount of solar light received by a horizontal surface on Earth.

The fraction of the sun radiation that penetrates the surface. A solar absorptance of 0.91 means that 91% of the sun's radiation penetrates the material and is converted to heat.

Describes the 3D geometry of the MOF. MOF-801 is constituted of a repetition of cubes having one cluster in each corner and each center of the faces. Figure 1B shows one of these small cubes constituting the repeating unit of the MOF.

During the day. It is the opposite of nocturnal, which means during the night.

The ratio of the cavities' volume to the total volume of the material. MOFs are made of microscopic crystals, which are responsible for the presence of these cavities. Porosity can range from 0 to 1, a porosity of 0 meaning that there are no cavities within the structure.

Made of atoms and molecules arranged in a highly ordered microscopic structure that extends in every direction.

Unit of light intensity corresponding to 1000 watts per square meter. For reference, if you stood one meter away from a standard 60-watt light bulb, the light intensity would be equal to about 4.8 watts per square meter.

The chemical composition of MOF-801. This specific MOF is based on zirconium (Zr) metal ions linked together by fumarate molecules, which are small organic compounds made of carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen.

Refers to the material's resistance to failure by fracture or deformation when a load is applied.

Misaligned or misfit.

Relating to the large-scale, likely visible to the human eye.

Refers to dimensions less than 100 nanometers (where one nanometer is one billionth of a meter).

This region is an intermediate between atomic and macroscopic scales.

The ratio of the frictional resistance force to the normal force. When two objects are in contact, the force which presses the surfaces together is called normal force.

A carbon material that exhibits many of the desirable properties of the diamond material.

The state of near-zero friction at the sliding interfaces of two contacting solid surfaces is called superlubricity. In superlubric regimes, the extent of physical and/or chemical interactions is extremely small and hence the surfaces can slide over one another without causing much friction.

Referring to the study of the evolutionary history and relationships of various biological species.

Relating to the structure or form of living organisms.

Individuals of different species compete for the same resources.

Events in which a lineage rapidly diversifies into more species with different adaptations. These events lead to speciation.

The formation of new species.

A statistic that describes how much variation of a specific trait can be attributed to genetics. With these finches, it's a measure of how well differences in beak genes account for differences in beak sizes.

Process that describes how species adapt to their environment. The organisms that are best adapted tend to survive and reproduce.

Describing a branch of biology that deals with relationships and interactions among organisms and the environment.

When two competing species overlap in habitat, natural selection may drive one population to use resources that are not used by individuals of the other population. This allows two similar species to coexist.

Polarity means to have two opposite or contradictory tendencies or aspects. In this case, the North Atlantic Oscillation (NAO) has both a warm phase and a cool phase, and convection (ocean mixing) differs between these conditions.

This 500-mb height (mb stands for millibar, which is a unit for measuring air pressure) is the typical height presented in weather maps. Since most weather occurs roughly around this height in the atmosphere, looking at 500-mb maps of the sky makes it possible to more accurately predict weather events.

What causes El Niño, how can it affect you, and why is it so hard to predict? Find out in this video from National Geographic:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=d6s0T0m3F8s

Altimetry is a technique for measuring the height of the surface below the altimeter. Satellites do this by sending a radar pulse to the surface of Earth. The time it takes for the pulse to bounce off the surface and return to the satellite is used to measure height, or altitude. Combined with precise satellite location data, such satellite measurements yield sea-surface heights.

Launched in 1992 as a joint mission of the U.S. and French space agencies, TOPEX/Poseidon was the first major oceanographic research satellite in space. It's goal was to map the topography of the ocean surface.

The sea-level pressure is the atmospheric pressure at a given location in the ocean. Because pressure and temperature are correlated, changes in temperature that result from climate change can, in turn, change sea-level pressure. 

Convection is the movement of a fluid due to changes in density, where more dense waters sink and less dense waters rise. Subduction is the term for the downwards movement of a substance, in this case when one water mass moves below another.

To accurately predict conditions on Earth, models of ocean currents and circulation are connected, or coupled, with models of atmospheric, ocean, and sea ice dynamics.

Caused or influenced by human activities.

The mechanisms causing ocean temperatures to increase are likely the same for every ocean.

Examples include the radiative forcings from volcanic aerosols, stratospheric ozone depletion, greenhouse gases, and solar variability.

The likelihood that a relationship between two or more variables is caused by something other than random chance. The data suggest there is a real difference in the temperature values between 1955-59 and 1970-74, as well as between 1970-74 and 1988-92.

A statistical test to compare the means of two groups.

For more information visit: http://www.biostathandbook.com/twosamplettest.html

Ocean regions between latitudes 50°N and 70°N are subarctic.

In subarctic oceans, there is a large range of temperature variation through the year, with cold winters and moderately warm summers. These latitudes also experience deep ocean mixing due to strong winter storms.

A series of 5 years. The later two pentads refers to the periods 1988-1992 and 1970-1974.

The North Atlantic has different water masses with distinctive temperature, salinity, and densities.

The Mediterranean Outflowoccurs at the region where the Mediterranean Sea meets the Atlantic, and has a different enough density to be distinct as it's own water mass.

This figure shows some of the water masses in the Atlantic Ocean from Antarctica (60°S) to the Northern Arctic Ocean (70°N). Image Source: http://www.atmosedu.com/Geol390/Life/OceanCirculation.html

The Pacific Decadal Oscillation (PDO) is typically thought of as a long-lived El Niño-like pattern of Pacific climate variability. Areas of the Pacific Ocean go through alternating patterns of warming and cooling every 10 to 30 years. 

For more information and to see a time series of PDO variability, visit: https://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/teleconnections/pdo/

The repetitive variation of a measurement over time, such as how temperature varies around a central value over time. 

Occurring roughly every two decades.

A relationship between two variables such that their values increase or decrease together. As time increases, the heat content of these basins also increases, suggesting these variables are positively correlated.

The measure of the statistical accuracy of an estimate. One of the most common measures is standard deviation, which can be presented as error bars (showing a margin of error) on a graph.

Oceanographers typically measure distinct depth levels in the ocean, with more measurements taken in the surface ocean than in the deep ocean.

For the upper 100m, measurements are taken every 5m in depth (i.e., 0m, 5m, 10m, 15m, 20m, etc.). Between 100m and 500m, measurements are taken every 25m (100m, 125m, 150m, 175m, etc.). From 500m to 2000m those measurements are every 50m (500m, 550m, 600m, 650m, etc.). For depths greater than 2000m, then data is collected in increments of 100m (2000m, 2100m, 2200m, 2300m, etc.).

An anomaly is something that deviates from what is standard, normal, or expected. Here, the authors examine how temperature varies from expected values.

Radiative balance is when solar energy coming to the Earth is balanced by an equal flow of heat from the Earth into space. If the Earth is in radiative balance, then global temperatures will remain relatively stable.

The long-lasting and persistent effects of reduced genetic diversity due to the small number of individuals that initially colonized a certain environment.

A classification of living organisms, similar to ecosystems, based on their bacteriological ecosystem. They are identifiable constellations of intestinal bacteria, biological communities of microorganisms in the gut. Dr. Peer Bork discovered three human gut types in April 2011: Bacteroides, Prevotella and Ruminococcus.

A technique that identifies and clusters groups, specifically for two separate clusters.

Chronic intestinal disease characterized by flares of inflammation of the innermost lining of the large intestine and rectum. Symptoms such as diarrhea, abdominal cramps, and bloody stools may occur alternating with quiescent (inactive/dormant) periods. Patients with ulcerative colitis are at an increased risk of developing colon cancer.

A diagnostic tool used to classify human faeces into seven categories based on its shape, texture, and consistency. The chart allows patients with gastrointestinal symptoms to describe their bowel movements without needed to provide a sample.

Learn more about BSS from this article in The Conversation: https://theconversation.com/what-the-consistency-of-your-poo-says-about-your-health-65106

A statistical model used to describe associations between multiple independent and dependent variables. The goal is the optimal linear combination of parameters to explain an observation.

Alpha-diversity is a measurement of the diversity within a single community/ecosystem. In this study, the researchers found that all of the 69 factors correlated with both the average species diversity and abundance in all samples.

Check out this video to learn more about alpha-diversity in the context of the microbiome.

The combined genetic information of microorganisms, such as bacteria and viruses, that are found in a specific environment.

Poly means many, and a nucleotide is the building block of genetic material. Therefore, a polynucleotide is a chain of many nucleotides—or one strand of genetic material.

Poly means many and phenylalanine is a specific amino acid. Therefore, polyphenylalanine is a chain of many phenylalanine residues.

The carboxyl end refers to the carboxylic acid group exposed on the protein chain. (Remember the analogy of kids lined up holding hands? This is in the Glossary annotation of "amino end.")

A set of nucleotide bases which codes for one amino acid.

An agent that changes one base into another either by chemical methods or radiation. Acridine is not a mutagen since it does not modify existing bases in DNA, but rather adds or deletes bases.

The iron-rich proteins in our red blood cells that transport oxygen from our lungs to the rest of our body.

CRISPR is a family of DNA sequences that are part of the immune system of bacteria. CRISPR enzymes detect specific viral DNA or RNA sequences, and can cleave the invading sequences and destroy them. Recently, researchers have begun to use CRISPR as a highly accurate tool for detecting specific DNA sequences in their research.

Type VI CRISPR-Cas systems are those that involve the protein Cas13, which can cut RNA molecules.

Genes in different species that can be traced to a common ancestral DNA sequence.

There are many different Cas9 and Cas13 orthologs from different bacterial organisms. As engineers, the researchers test many of them as they will have different levels of activity in mammalian cells (as compared to bacterial) and some might not work at all.

When both strands of DNA are cut, a cell can repair the DNA by rejoining the two strands. Nonhomologous end joining is one way this repair can happen, and it does not require homologous (similar) sequences.

Because the sequences do not have to be homologous, this process is imprecise and can result in deletions or insertions.

A process of precise DNA editing in which a cell uses homologous (similar) sequences as a template to repair DNA.

This method is more precise than nonhomologous end joining (NHEJ), but takes more time. It's also generally less efficient and does not operate on non-dividing cell types like neurons.

The job of enzymes is to make chemical reactions happen faster. An enzyme that is catalytically inactive does not accelerate chemical reactions.

Cas13 catalyzes the cleavage (cutting) of RNA molecules. This is an important function of the bacterial immune system, where Cas13 helps protect the organism from invading RNA.

To use Cas13 for RNA editing, the researchers created a catalytically inactive enzyme (dCas13) that can be used to target RNA without cutting it and allowing for recruitment of other enzymes to the RNA.

RNA editing happens in the cell after DNA has been transcribed (RNA molecules have been synthesized from a using a DNA sequence as a template). This editing is usually insertion, deletion, or substitution of bases. The most common type of RNA editing is the substitution of adenosine to inosine, which functionally reads as guanosine (facilitated by the ADAR family of enzymes). Essentially, this reads as an A to G base change.

Native to a system (i.e. not the result of changes by external factors). Endogenous targeting here means the normal target sites for the ADAR protein in the cell.

Cloning means to insert a gene, a gene fragment, or an accessory sequence into a vector. Vectors are vehicles that carry DNA into a cell and exist as a plasmid in the nucleus,

When the vector is multiplied in a cell or in a cell-free system, many copies of this fragment (clones) are generated.

Refers to energy balance, in which an organism's energy intake (food) and outflow (energy expenditure) is coordinated to achieve no overall energy surplus or deficit.

A technique in which a neuron population of interest is killed. It allows the researchers to understand the function of a cell population.

Relates to both sympathetic nervous system and the adrenal medulla.

Ability to change.

Newborn or shortly after birth.

Relates to both cardiac (heart) and respiration (lungs) functions. Helps in the maintenance of oxygen and breathing.

Something that is in the initial, or beginning, stages.

Breeding between members of two different species.

A learning process that young animals go through soon after birth. The nearby adults serve as models for their identification of members of their own species.

Living within the same geographical area.

Because of their unique beak shape, the Big Birds can occupy an ecological niche that is not already occupied by any of the species already living on the island.

The separation of two alleles during meiosis when sex cells (sperm and eggs) are formed.

Plural of locus. A locus is a particular location in the genome where a certain gene is found. All alleles for one gene are found at the same locus. Each gene has its own, unchanging locus.

Different versions of a particular gene. When we refer to homozygous, we are describing alleles for a particular gene that are the same as each other.

Describes a situation where two different genes interact to affect a single phenotype. It often refers to a case where one set of genes might be modified or suppressed by a different set of genes.

The physical appearance and traits of an organism.

Allometries are relationships between measurable traits, such as bill length and body size.

Static allometries are measured in several individuals within one population who are all at the same developmental stage.

Occurs when one trait (such as height in humans) is influenced by many genes.

A diagram that represents the evolutionary relationships between organisms. Each group is descended from a common ancestor and so are related genetically. Phylogenetic trees can be based on morphology and on genetic information.

When families or closely related groups breed together to produce offspring.

The study of the form of an organism: Its size, shape, structure, and the relationships between those parts.

Means breeding that is confined to a specific group; in this case, the newly established species.

Meaning maintaining the same chromosome number: For example, staying diploid (two copies of each chromosome) rather than going from diploid to tetraploid (four copies of each chromosome).

Allometry is the study of how body structures or processes scale compared to body size. In this case, the authors are comparing bill size to body size. An allometric shift means that the bill size compared to body size has a different numerical value in the hybrid species than in either of the parental species.

This measure of genetic diversity is based on DNA sequence. It tells us the average proportion of nucleotides that are different between any two randomly selected sequences in an organism's DNA. Lower values indicate lower diversity.

Improved.

Nerve fibers arriving in the STN. In the peripheral nervous system, afferent fibers are those that carry signals from the target back to the spinal cord.

Nerve fibers exiting the STN. Directionality in the central nervous system is dependent upon the brain region in question. In the peripheral nervous system, efferents are in relation to the spinal cord—neurons that carry signals out of the spinal cord and to a target.

Referring to the substantia nigra, a part of the brain rich in dopamine neurons.

Real or true.

Here, referring to tissues made up of many different cell types with specific functions.

The study of the atmosphere and weather patterns. Meteorological data is often used to predict the weather.

Because chartered research vessels are expensive and time-consuming to organize, ship-of-opportunity programs use a combination of volunteer commercial and research vessels to collect oceanographic measurements. For example, a shipping vessel can be equipped with sampling instruments that will acquire data while it moves along a normal shipping route.  

The surface ocean is generally thought of as the top 1,000 meters (3,300 feet) of the ocean, which includes the region of rapidly changing temperatures called the 'thermocline'.

As you can see in this NOAA figure, everything below the thermocline is the deep ocean.

Specific heat is the amount of heat per unit mass required to raise the temperature by one degree Celsius.

Thus, specific heat is a thermodynamic property of seawater expressing how heat content changes with temperature. A substance's specific heat also depends on temperature, pressure, and salinity.

CLIVAR stands for "Climate and Ocean: Variability, Predictability and Change." The goal of CLIVAR is to further our understanding of the oceans and climate.

For more information visit: http://www.clivar.org/about

Monotonic means to neither increase nor decrease.

As the warming is not monotonic, this means there are periods where temperature has increased and other periods where temperatures have decreased.

Scientists use the "~" symbol to mean "approximately." This means the world ocean's heat content increased by approximately 2x10²³ joules.

2x10²³ joules is the same as 200,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 joules, or a 2 with 23 zeros following it.

The average.

,

Neurotransmitters that have increased effects on the neuron.

Peptides that bind to opioid receptors in the brain.

Refers to any branches/projections from the cell body of a neuron.

During the beginning and development of an organism.

Meaning "from the new;" in this case, the first appearance of the enzyme.

Observation and examination of one's own thoughts.

In this context, meaning huge.

A mid-brain region, involved with the physiological responses to stress. The locus ceruleus is now believed to be the primary site of norepinephrine production.

Neurons that perceive stimulation or sensation.

When depolarization occurs, there is an inward flow of sodium ions through the ion channels into the cell. Ion channels are present across the membrane.

Generally considered or reputed to be.

Occurs within a neuron.

Constantly changing.

Usually means 25 degrees Celsius, or 77 degrees Fahrenheit (think room temperature).

In the case of MOF, recycling describes the ability to release the water from the pores multiple times.

The capacity of the MOF to go through multiple cycles of adsorption-desorption of water without losing water uptake capacity.

Describes the frequency of false positives, which can be reduced by more robust experimental design, higher quality samples, or improved analytical techniques.

Parameters that vary with the variation in what is being studied; here, the microbiome covariates are variables taken from clinical and questionnaire data that are strongly correlated with the abundance and diversity of various genera.

A statistical method used to quantify the compositional difference in species populations between samples. The value is always a number between 0 and 1, where 0 indicates that the samples share all the same species and 1 indicates that the samples don't have any species in common.

Parameters that blur results by having an effect on what is studied. These factors may mask or falsely show associations between the independent and dependent variables, resulting in biased conclusions.

An anisotropic crystal is one which has different properties in different orientations.

Serve an opposite function to.

In the living animal.

The amount of food eaten when the mice are allowed to eat as much or as often as they like.

A procedure in which electrodes are implanted into specific parts of the brain, allowing electrical stimulation of a target region.

It is most commonly used as a treatment for Parkinson's disease and other movement disorders as well as obsessive-compulsive disorder and depression.

Promotes appetite and food intake.

Indicates the part of the brain that underlies a specific behavior or cognitive or physiological process.

The drivers (either human or algorithm) sacrifice themselves to save one or 10 pedestrians.

The researchers only considered cars with at least one passenger.

In the case of immunizations, sometimes parents choose not to immunize their children because they (falsely) perceive a high risk to their own child, even though this choice may make it more likely that other children will be harmed.

There are many examples in society in which governments and people must make a decision based on how much harm will be done to one person/group versus another.

A scenario in which people will get larger benefits if they act in their own interest rather than the group's interest, even though the entire group will benefit the most if everyone cooperates.

An algorithm is a set of rules, like a procedure or a formula, that is followed to achieve a goal.

For example, if you are baking bread, you might follow a recipe. In the same way, a computer can follow a series of steps to solve a problem. Just as there are different recipes for making bread, there are many different algorithms to achieve a single goal.

The value you expect for a given scenario.

For example, if you joined the lottery, how much should you expect to win given the amount of money you put into it? Combined with the expected risk, this tells you if something is worthwhile.

The probability that the value you get for a given scenario is very different from the one you expect.

For example, if you joined the lottery and expected to win $5, what is the probability that you wouldn't actually get $5?

All cells in an organism other than the reproductive cells.

The smallest building block of a crystal is called unit cell. The repetition of these identical structural units in space constitute the crystal lattice.

A vacancy defect wherein two of the atoms are missing from the lattice structure is termed as double vacancy. Sometimes, dangling bonds arising from the missing of atoms in the hexagonal structure of graphene leads to its straining and formation of pentagons and heptagons. These types of defects are called Stone-Wales defects.

In a crystal, the atoms are arranged in a regular order and this property of the crystal is called its periodicity.

Diamond particles in the nanoscale dimensions are called nanodiamonds.

The growing season is the time of year when crops are grown because the temperature and rainfall during that time are most ideal for plant growth. The growing season will vary depending on where you are in the world.

metabolic rate is the amount of energy an organism uses up in a span of time. An organism with a higher metabolic rate will use up more energy than an organism with a low metabolic rate. Metabolic rate may change over time as well. This paper discusses how insects have greater metabolic needs in warmer temperatures and so they need to eat more to sustain their greater energy needs.