The acquisition of linguistic competencies and linguistic flexibility among chil-dren with language or dialect differences can be enhanced by modeling positive teacher perspectives, creating a positive learning environment, building on first language com-petencies, and developing a community of learners.

Teachers who have exam-ined and reflected on their own attitudes toward linguistic and cultural diversity and acquired information about the respective cultures and languages represented in their classrooms are better able to create classroom environments that enhance the learning opportunities of all children.

Successful ESL programs provide frequent opportunities for peer interactions (Fassler, 2003)

language prolicicncy (CALP). As described in an oarlior section of this chaptPr. this involves using language to ongago in academic tasks whern lho learner musl rel)· on linguistic cues lo develop moaning. such as in reading a textbook or listening to a teacher's direct inslruclion of a particular concept.

Additional individual learner variables that affect second language acquisition include the learner's cognitive abilities, personality, motivation, self-confidence, and home language competencies

Thrne major fac:.lors have a significant inlluonce on second language acquisition: loarnN characlmistics. social selling, and linguistic inpul.

I hi:; hoch ol n•11ml H'!;Parc h :;upporli; lhc• 1 011c.]w;irlll that c hildrnn ac q11in• Ian. μua~n k1tc>\\ IPdgu 1101 onl\' al thl' li11g11h,1ic lovnl hut al lhn 111olaling11i:;lil' k11mvl1•clg11 1 .. , ('I a11cl llw (P\-1d of nwlali11g11ii,li1 k11owlmlgl' vorhaliza1io11 as wnll

Successive bilingualism refers to instances in which children acquire their second language after age 3.

This distinction between formal and informal English acknowledges that children come into classrooms speaking different forms of language that are linguistically valid and authentic.

a more technical, precise vocabulary; and specific "grammatical constructions and devices, rhetorical con-ventions, and discourse markers"

Encouraging children to become linguistically flexible is critical for teachers in the development and implementation of curricula that will provide children with opti-mal learning opportunities.

By recognizing .and including those creative discourse structures in class-room activities, linguistic diversity is encouraged and vnlidatod

In academic settings, language is used in specific ways for specific purposes. This register of language is referred to in English-speaking settings as academic English.

Morphemic differences are found in the way verb endings or other inflectional endings are used, such as gonna or goin' compared with going to and going.

Syntactic differences involve differences in the way sentences are structured,

anguage diversity. This is the variation and number of nouns and modifiers used by the parents. 2. Feedback tone. This is the positive feedback given to children's participation in an interaction. 3. Symbolic emphasis. This is the emphasis placed on focusing on names and associated relations of the concepts and the recall of those symbols. 4. Guidance style. This is parental interaction that uses asking rather than demanding in eliciting specific behavior from the child. 5. Responsiveness. This is parental responsiveness to requests or questions initiated by children.

most importanl difference was in the amount of talking

Findings from their longitudinal study docu· monl the significance of "talkativeness" in families in influencing languago development rather than the family's socioeconomic status or ethnic group iden-tity.

verbal-deficit perspective. This perspective contended that anyone who did not use standard English did not have a valid language and thus was verbally deficient.

t is important for teachers to recognize and value the home language or dialect of each child in their classrooms.

sociolinguistics studies the "relationship between linguistic behav-ior and social situations, roles, and functions"

Dialects devolop in settings where a group of people com-nrnnicato within their group moro froquontly and for a longer period of lime than they do with outside groups.

When a pidgin is creolized, linguistic features of the language are expanded, especially with respect to grammar-syntax, vocabulary-semantics, and function-style-pragmatics.

Tho Sapir-Whorf hypothesis staled that lho way wn think and viow tho world is dotorminnd by our languago

Differences in language use were attributed to the complex family culture-not simply to socioeconomic status or ethnic group identity.

In recognizing the varied ways in which language is used in different settings and speech communities, there has also been an acknowledgment that people tan develop linguistic flexibility that allows them to communicate effectively in differ· ant settings, using different dialects and communication styles

Cultural differences have also been noted in the ways in which language is used pragmatically. In U.S. culture, new skills are typically taught and learned through verbal instruction {Slobin, 1979) or through silent observation. A distinction has also been made betwe-en cultures that encourage independent learning and those that encourage cooperative learning

Language and culturo are intorlwinocl in a complex way. Tho system of symbols prosont in a language and tho way in which a language is usocl lo communicate have uniquo foalurcs for nach particular cull urn or subculture.

To become aware of the ways in which cultures may be similar or different, you will also need to examine your own culture and your students' culture with respect to these aspects: family structure, life cycle, interpersonal role relationships, discipline, time and space, religion, food, health and hygiene, and history, tradi-tion, and holidays. It is important to acknowledge and understand one's own cul-ture and language community as it provides a basis for becoming aware of one's identity and "cultural selr' as well as beginning to understand other cultures and language communities (Zygmunt-Fillwalk & Clark, 2007).

A child's first language serves as a foundation on which the second language is acquired

Children's language competencies influence their educational opportunities and achievements.

Cognitive strategies. These strategies involve using language to interact with written and hands-on materials, using a range of cognitive processes, such as summarizing, deduction/induction, transfer, and inference. 2. Metacognitive strategies. These strategies involve using language to plan, monitor, and evaluate one's own learning. 3. Social-affective strategies. These strategies involve using language to interact with olhers (peers or teachers) in the learning process, such as asking questions for clarification or working collaboratively (Chamot & O'Malley, 1995).

Encouraging children to become linguistically flexible is critical for teachers in the development and implementation of curricula that will provide children with opti-mal learning opportunities.

As an early childhood teacher. your role is lo continue to enhance children's language development and to encourage children lo dovolop linguistic flexibilily so they can communicate effectively in a wide vari-ety of sol tings. While you may think that your emphasis should be only on helping children develop lnngungo competencies that will contribute to thoir success in aca-demic sellings, ii is also important for you lo acknowledge the value of their other language compotoncies that will contribute lo their effective communication

Heath concluded that the contrasts she found in langunge were not based on race, but on complex cultural influences in each community.

In many classrooms. teachers will not ho multilingual or roprosont diverse c.ulturns, nor will thoy have rccoived any special professional preparation lo work with linguislic diversily (R11hi11stoi11-Avila, 2006). In addilion, attention to tlw linguislic and cull11ral backgrounds of tho children may be limilml and not inrorporallid into llw classroom curriculum.

they might create real products that people outside school use.

and met with teams to monitor their progress.

To guide students in real inquiry, refer students to the list of questions they generated after the entry event. Coach them to add to this list as they discover new insights. The classroom culture should value questioning, hypothesizing, and openness to new ideas and perspectives.

each team regularly paused to review how well they were collaborating and communicating,

teachers might provide a limited menu of options for creative products to prevent students from becoming overwhelmed by choices.

gives students a sense of purpose and challenge.

discussion in which students shared their experiences with suspicious water quality, discussed times when beaches had been closed and why, and talked about how much pollution bothered them

extended process of inquiry, critique, and revision.

Schoolwork is more meaningful when it's not done only for the teacher or the test. When students present their work to a real audience, they care more about its quality.

In addition to providing direct feedback, the teacher should coach students in using rubrics or other sets of criteria to critique one another's work.

In real inquiry, students follow a trail that begins with their own questions, leads to a search for resources and the discovery of answers, and often ultimately leads to generating new questions, testing ideas, and drawing their own conclusions.

A project should give students opportunities to build such 21st century skills as collaboration, communication, critical thinking, and the use of technology, which will serve them well in the workplace and life.

In terms of making a project feel meaningful to students, the more voice and choice, the better.

A project without a driving question is like an essay without a thesis.

announcing a project by distributing a packet of papers is likely to turn students off; it looks like a prelude to busywork.

Many students find schoolwork meaningless because they don't perceive a need to know what they're being taught.

First, students must perceive the work as personally meaningful, as a task that matters and that they want to do well. Second, a meaningful project fulfills an educational purpose. Well-designed and well-implemented project-based learning is meaningful in both ways.

This process helps avoid the common problems of treating the textbook as the curriculum rather than a resource, and activity-oriented teaching in which no clear priorities and purposes are apparent.

In Stage 3 of backward design, teachers plan the most appropriate lessons and learning activities to address the three different types of goals identified in Stage 1: transfer, meaning making, and acquisition (T, M, and A).

we consider in advance the assessment evidence needed to document and validate that the targeted learning has been achieved.

Essential companion questions are used to engage learners in thoughtful “meaning making” to help them develop and deepen their understanding of important ideas and processes that support such transfer.

In the first stage of backward design, we consider our goals, examine established content standards (national, state, prov-ince, and district), and review curriculum expectations.

work on a team, problem-solving skills, written and verbal communication skills, and initiative.

students rarely see its relevance. Even if we are able to design a project that has them apply their knowledge in real-world ways,

The “project” in many cases is often something like a poster that merely regurgitates the facts students were taught in the unit.

A PBL project might ask students to educate their peers on the best ways to prevent the spread of viruses in school. To do this, they would need to study microbiology to understand how viruses work, research prevention tools, then use their writing and speaking skills to determine the most effective means to convince their peers to change their habits; this may come in the form of a video or poster series.

With project based learning, the content is baked inside of a long-term project, a real-world problem students need to solve in a creative and authentic way. In

closes the achievement gap for underserved populations, improves understanding and retention of content, and increases motivation for all students.

Now that technology has made it easy to find any fact in a matter of seconds, the ability to regurgitate information is no longer valued the way it once was.

With project based learning, the content is baked inside of a long-term project, a real-world problem students need to solve in a creative and authentic way.

deliver content to students, give them opportunities to practice or apply what they learned, and eventually conduct a summative assessment

Rather than having a teacher provide facts and then testing students ability to recall these facts via memorization, PBL attempts to get students to apply knowledge to new situations.

Kids show what they learn as they journey through the unit, interact with its lessons, collaborate with each other, and assess themselves and each other. T

Pair strategy instruction with written prompts to guide students toward independence.

explicitly model how to evaluate each dimension and provide repeated opportunities for students to practice and apply these strategies to information they encounter during the research process.

Relevance: the information’s level of importance to a particular reading purpose or explicitly stated need for that information Accuracy: the extent to which information contains factual and updated details that can be verified by consulting alternative and/or primary sources Bias/Perspective: the position or slant toward which an author shapes information Reliability: the information’s level of trustworthiness based on information about the author and the publishing body

intervention during regular content area instruction.

ability to critically evaluate information.

You need to differentiate the learning environment because some students learn better on their own, and others learn better in a team

Another essential component of PBL is student voice and choice, both in terms of what students produce and how they use their time.

Throughout the project, students should be reflecting on their work and setting goals for further learning.

Sometimes in a novel- or literature-based PBL project, it might be appropriate to differentiate by grouping into reading level.

it is student-centered, student-driven, and gives space for teachers to meet the needs of students in a variety of ways.

With clearly identified results (enduring understandings) and appropriate evidence of understanding in mind, educators can now plan instructional activities.

Given its focus on understanding, our unit or course will be anchored by performance tasks or projects—these provide evidence that students are able to use their knowledge in context, a more appropriate means of evoking and assessing enduring understanding.

The backward design approach encourages us to think about a unit or course in terms of the collected assessment evidence needed to document and validate that the desired learning has been achieved, so that the course is not just content to be covered or a series of learning activities

The smallest ring represents finer-grain choices—selecting the "enduring" understandings that will anchor the unit or course.

It specifies the prerequisite knowledge and skills needed by students for them to successfully accomplish key performances

Without a focus on linchpin ideas that have lasting value, students may be left with easily forgotten fragments of knowledge.

In this first stage, we consider our goals, examine established content standards (national, state, and district), and review curriculum expectations.

Greater coherence among desired results, key performances, and teaching and learning experiences leads to better student performance—the purpose of design.

backward design calls for us to operationalize our goals or standards in terms of assessment evidence as we begin to plan a unit or course.

We are advocating the reverse: One starts with the end—the desired results (goals or standards)—and then derives the curriculum from the evidence of learning (performances) called for by the standard and the teaching needed to equip students to perform.

These 21C Skills span across sectors and domain areas and are critical in a variety of jobs and higher education, and for success in life

The 21C Skills, combined with the web literacy skills, are the nexus for entry-level digital-age skills. They are a set of abilities such as problem-solving, creativity, collaboration, or communication that people need to develop in order to succeed in the information age.

we need to provide people with open access to the skills and know-how needed to use the web to improve their lives, careers, and organizations.

In the field of child study, there has been a long-standing debate about the roles of nature and nurture in influencing an individual's development

the nalivist perspective describes language development as an innate, instinctual process where children develop language by discovering the structure of their language

Piaget's definition of language is narrower than that of other psychologists or lin-guists. For "language" to exist, Piaget contended, the "capacity for mental represen· talion must be present" (Brainerd, 1978. p. '110). Thus, vocalizations nncl babbling that occur during infancy ore nol language, according lo Piaget. The development of symbolic representation changes 11 child's thinking because ii is now possible to "invoke objects which are not present perceptually ... reconstruct the past ... or moke plans for the future" (Piaget, 1961, in Paciorek & Munro, 1999, p. 7).

Healthy infants are able "lo learn any of the world's 3,000 languages" (Rushton, Eitelgeorge, & Zickafoose, 2003, p. 13).

Environmental supports for language development are present in the interaction pallerns found in conversations, such as listening, responding to what has been said, repeating for clarification, and asking questions

The emphasis of this perspective is that language is acquired as maturation occurs and cognitive competencies develop. Whereas the nalivisl perspective emphasizes the inborn language mechanism, the cognitive developmental perspective assumes that cognitive development is a "prerequisite nnd foundation for language learn-ing" (Karmiloff & Karmiloff-Smith, 200'1, p. 5}. This perspective also proposes that a child learns language by using the same mechanisms as for other learning. Thus, there is no unique language mechanism.

language acquisition device (LAD) (Chomsky, 1982: Harris, 1992). The LAD enables children to process and acquire language through innate knowledge of grammatical classes, underlying deep structure, and ways in which language can be manipulated.

In the field of child study, there has been a long-standing debate about the roles of nature and nurture in influencing an individual's development (Karmiloff & Karmiloff-Smilh, 2001; Sanlrock, 2001). This debate has also been evident in the development of theoretical perspectives on language development.

By understanding t 10 types o contexts an rnteract1on patterns m w 11c 1 c 11 • dren experience language, toachors are bettor nblo to establish classroom settings that foster language development.

Repetition is on aspect of linguistic scaffolding. In the previous example, the adult's repetition of specific key words (shoes, blue, K-1vfarl) used by the child served to reinforce pronunciation and to confirm the meaning of what the child said.

While initially this might seem to indicate that communica-tion is less beneficial when fathers and older siblings are involved, young children's communicative competence mighl bo enhanced in this type of selling, where they must respond or adapt to the communicative demands of others rather than having the style of communication always adapted lo them

\Ve know that selecting appropriate picture books and welcoming the toddler's questions and comments can actively engage the toddler in the book sharing.

s an early childhood teacher you will need lo communicate lo parents, col-leagues, and administrators the specific aspects of your classroom curriculum and environment that will enhance children's language development. When this is done, parents, colleagues, and administrators will have u better appreciation of tho ways in which children's educational and developmental needs are being met in your early childhood classroom.

For example, at the family dinner table, an oral request lo pass a serving bowl of salad is likely follO\oved by tho response of passing the bowl to the person who requested it. This demonstrates how language can function to servo a particular purpose or moot a specific need.

Cambourne's work and the role of the environment fn focllltatlng oral language development. The role of the environment in supporting and facilitating children's language development has been further described by Cnmbourne (1988, 1995)

This scaffolding assists children in participating al a higher level than they could perform independently.

\.t\1hen adults are teaching n child to say "bye-bye," the child's al tempts are often followed by positive reinforcement such as a hug, an embrace, or verbal praise.

verbal mapping provides a nar-rative to daily routines of dressing, eating, and exploring.

After shared reference is established, communicn· Lion about the object or event occul's.

We begin communicating with children through establishing eye contact and shal'od reference.

teachers will better understand the process of language development and will be better able to facilitate language development in their classrooms.

hen com· pared to children from middle or upper SES. children from low SES environments showed differences in brain activation during rending tasks involving phonological skills (Noble el al., 2006).

aphasia

For older children, formal school-based linguistic routines may include saying the Pledge of Allegiance, taking allendance, greeting someone in Lhe morning, and saying good-bye in the afternoon

When speech directed to young children is at a slower pace or temf it allows for linguistic processing: it takes time lo process speech cognitively. If y, have ever been inn setting where you were a nonnative speaker, you may ha wished that tho native speakers would just speak more slowly.

neurolinguistics

46 ~H Chapter 2 3. Utterances are not syntactically complex. 4. Utterances have a higher pitch and intonation is more exaggerated. 5. Utterances are redundant or repetitive in part or in whole. 6. Ull?rances have a slower rate or tempo. 7. Utterances are more closely tied lo tho immediate context. 8. Utterances have discourse features that encourage children lo participate and to clarify the child's responses.

Allison was then able lo sing the song on her own.

zone of proximal development (Vygotsky, 1978). What a child accomplishes independently is her developmental level

language acquisition support system (LASS)

This perspective contends that children acquire language through their attempts to communicate with the world around them.

A child is considered lo be a "blank slate" (Karmiloff & Karmiloff-Smilh, 2001), and loaming occurs due to associations established between stim-uli, responses, and events that occur after tho response behavior.

preopera-tional stage

Object permanence involves an awareness that an object continues lo exist even when it is out of sight.

The cognitive developmental perspective is based on the work of Jean Pingel (1955). The emphasis of this perspective is that language is acquired as maturation occurs and cognitive competencies develop.

children's literature should bo road lo children so thnl L1iey can .develop and test hypotheses about how language is used Lo communicate. O

hypothesis testing

Specifically, it acknowledges behaviorism's recognition of the environment's responses lo young children's communicative allempts, nativ-ism's recognition of tho human capacity for processing linguistic information, and the cognitive developmentalist's contention that language development is infl u-enced by the nature and sequence of cognitive development. Extensive research conducted by Bloom and Tinker (2

earned, il does nol provide a complete explanation for lhe development of other language competencies. Specifically, the behaviorist perspective does not explain bow children learn lo express novel utterances (Harris, 1992), such as their own invented words or phrases that have nol boon used by the other speakers in their environment. . Using the

This perspective also proposes that a child learns language by using the same mechanisms as for other learning. Thus, there is no unique language mechanism. The close relation between cognitive devel-opment and language is based on the beliof that. for language lo develop, specific cognilivo growth must occur first

child's LAD is activated,

Jn summary, the nalivist perspective describes language development as an innate, instinctual process where children develop language by discovering the structure of their language

Healthy infants are able "lo learn any of the world's 3,000 languages"

Or is the child already "preprogrammed" for language develo11ment in such a way that heredity and matu-ration are the major influences, with experience and context exerting only limited influence'?

all people inherently have the capacity to acquire language due lo cogni-tive structures that process language differently from other stimuli.

The nativist perspective emphasizes inborn or innate human capabilities (i.e., "nature") as being responsible for language development.

Semantic knowledge is also considered with respect to its relation lo syntax

Children ore not taught language: rather, "children actually reinvent it, generation after gen-eration"

nature and nurture

The ability to learn language is a quality of the human species because humans obviously are not designed to acquire one language over another.

Describe four theoretical perspeclivos of language development • Explain the brain's role in language development • Identify and define the seven pallerns of interaction • Explain the role of home environments on language development

The ability to learn language is a quality of the human species because humans obviously are not designed to acquire one language over another.

The nativist perspective emphasizes inborn or innate human capabilities (i.e., "nature") as being responsible for language development.

Adults serve as mediators who introduce children lo higher levels of functioning within a supportive scaffolded setting.

each of the perspectives focuses on the roles of nature and nurture as well as the development of specific language knowledge,

no one the-ory provides a complete and irref utablc explanation of language development, each theory contributes significant ideas and concepts, which over Lime have clarified our awareness of the ways language develops.

Language is acquired by individuals as they develop awareness of how to com-municate and function in society

teachers will better understand the process of language development and will be better able to facilitate language development in their classrooms.

n the field of child study, there has been a long-standing debate about the roles of nature and nurture in influencing an individual's development

The difference between what a child can accomplish alone and whal she can accomplish with an adult's (or more capable peer's) mediation or assistance is termed Lhe zone of proximal development (Vygotsky, 1978).

language is an instinct, not simply a cultural invention:

universal grammar, as "the system of principles, conditions, and rules that are elements or properties of all human languages"

ge is acquirocl in a social selling: it cannot be acquired in a solitary soiling. ~;;guoge learner must have iuleraclion v,•ilh another person who is a language user.

Immersion. Young children are surrounded by language as it is used by others in their environmenl. Beginning al birth, children hear the conversations of Uieir parents, siblings, and 0U1ers in their environment.

He identified eight conditions that support oral language development: immersion, dem-onstration, engagement, expectations, responsibility, approximations, employment, and response.

The ways in which an environment supports children's language explorations have been referred to as the language acquisition support system (LASS)

The primary role of social interaction in language development is based on the observation that children acquire an awareness of specific communicative functions or intentions (such as indicating, requesting, and labeling) before they ore able to express themselves linguistically

t acknowledges behaviorism's recognition of the environment's responses lo young children's communicative allempts, nativ-ism's recognition of tho human capacity for processing linguistic information, and the cognitive developmentalist's contention that language development is infl u-enced by the nature and sequence of cognitive development.

Language is acquired by individuals as they develop awareness of how to com-municate and function in society

This perspective contends that children acquire language through their attempts to communicate with the world around them. This perspective contributes to our understanding of the ways in which children acquire pragmatic language knowledge.

While the behaviorist porspoclive does explain how some words and phrases are learned, il does nol provide a complete explanation for lhe development of other language competencies.

Many types of environmental responses serve as reinforcers.

Thus, language is "taught" through situations in which children are encouraged to imilato others' speech and to devolop associations between verbal stimuli (i.e., words) and objects

A child is considered lo be a "blank slate" (Karmiloff & Karmiloff-Smilh, 2001), and loaming occurs due to associations established between stim-uli, responses, and events that occur after tho response behavior.

The behaviorist perspective emphasizes the role of "nurture" and considers learn-ing to occur based on the stimuli, responses, nnd reinforcements that occur

The cognitive developmental perspective encourages teachers to pay close attention lo a child's stage of cognitive development and use that knowledgo to appropriately plan learning activities.

According lo Piaget, lhe second stage of cognitive development is the preopera-tional stage. This stage begins al about 2 years of age and extends to about 7 years of nge. Children in this stage "begin to represent the world with words, images, and drawings" (Santrock. 2001, p. 36). Piaget (1955) considered children's initial speech to be egocentric, focused on their own perceptions, which may reflect distorted perceptions or relations. Gradually, as children develop cognitively, their speech becomes socialized, or reflective of more logical thinking.

For "language" to exist, Piaget contended, the "capacity for mental represen· talion must be present" (Brainerd, 1978. p. '110). Thus, vocalizations nncl babbling that occur during infancy ore nol language, according lo Piaget.

The close relation between cognitive devel-opment and language is based on the beliof that. for language lo develop, specific cognilivo growth must occur first.

the nalivist perspective describes language development as an innate, instinctual process where children develop language by discovering the structure of their language

Children are active participants in their language development. In a sense, children teach themselves language. Through the acquisi-tion process, children construct their knowledge of the ways language is used nnd manipulated.

As evidence of the universality and instinctive nature of lan-guage, Pinker noted that throughout history, all civilizations, even among primitive societies, have a language. While languages may differ dramatically with respect to linguistic features, the development and use of language in all cultures is universal.

Steven Pinker (1994) conlended that language is an instinct, not simply a cultural invention: "Language is a biological adaptation lo communicate information ... language is the product of a well-engineered biologi-cal instinct"

The nativist perspective emphasizes inborn or innate human capabilities (i.e., "nature") as being responsible for language development.

Is a child a "blank slate" at birth, and do the experiences or "nurture" provided in the envi-ronment predominantly determine language development'! Or is the child already "preprogrammed" for language develo11ment in such a way that heredity and matu-ration are the major influences, with experience and context exerting only limited influence'?

The nativist and the cognitive dovelopmentalisl perspectives emphasize the contributions of "nature," whereas tho behaviorist and interaclionist perspectives focus more on the contributions of "nurture."

s a child a "blank slate" at birth, and do the experiences or "nurture" provided in the envi-ronment predominantly determine language development'! Or is the child already "preprogrammed" for language develo11ment in such a way that heredity and matu-ration are the major influences, with experience and context exerting only limited influence'?

When speech directed to young children is at a slower pace or temf it allows for linguistic processing: it takes time lo process speech cognitively. If y, have ever been inn setting where you were a nonnative speaker, you may ha wished that tho native speakers would just speak more slowly.

Whon this routine hns been repeated suc-cessfully with infants (G-'12 months of ago) over lime, they begin to respond to the verbal phrase or word by looking nl the speaker nnd then Lo the location sig-naled by the udull's gesture. After shared reference is established, communicn· Lion about the object or event occul's.

Allison's shoes and socks ore now on, nnd Allison becomes distracted by her 4-yeor-old sister, who is also playing in the backyard. Allison leaves hor mom's lnp, and the singing ends. Two minutes later, Allison is observed singing the duck song to herself as she walks in the backyard.

"Now say 'bye-bye'," and the child responds with an immediate nllompt to repoat the specific word(s). Or, it may occur as a result of delayed modeling, when the child approximates previously modeled speech in a similar setting without being prompted.

language development is influenced by the society in which the individual lives: "higher mental functions are socially formed and culturally transmitted" (Vygolsky, 1978,

When eye contact and shurod reference are not eslnblishod, communi-cation often breaks down or is nol even inilinlod as there is no clear common focus. Eye conlact is usually established by un adult firsl looking directly at n chil

The result is that children at school have less opportunity for conversations with adults.

he verbal mapping pattern occurs when an adult verbally describes (not just names) an object or nction in o level of detail appropriate to the developmental level of the child wilh whom the interaction is occurring.

com-munication loop, a circular or cycle-like sharing and exchanging of tho roles of speaker and listener (see Figure 2.6).

his is n busic interaction pattern

the behaviorist perspective does not explain bow children learn lo express novel utterances (Harris, 1992), such as their own invented words or phrases that have nol boon used by the other speakers in their environment.

The behaviorist perspective emphasizes the role of "nurture" and considers learn-ing to occur based on the stimuli, responses, nnd reinforcements that occur in the

This means that concepts and schemata develop from interpersonal interaction and communication.

The cognitive developmental perspective is based on the work of Jean Pingel (1955). The emphasis of this perspective is that language is acquired as maturation occurs and cognitive competencies develop.

n summary, the nalivist perspective describes language development as an innate, instinctual process where children develop language by discovering the structure of their language (Cairns, 1996). This discovery process is thought to be aided by an inborn mechanism that is specific for language learning

onlended that language is an instinct, not simply a cultural invention: "Language is a biological adaptation lo communicate information ... language is the product of a well-engineered biologi-cal instinct" (p. 19).

universal grammar, as "the system of principles, conditions, and rules that are elements or properties of all human languages"