The emptying of the stomach which occurs as food moves on to subsequent stages of digestion and the eventual excretion of wastes.

The temperature conditions within which an organism has the best chance of thriving. This is one of several factors that determine the ecological niche of an organism, which describes how its behavior and habitat choice play a specific role in the context of the larger ecosystem that it is a part of.

The classic "bell curve" that is used to describe a normal distribution of values.

Enzymes perform many important functions in our bodies (such as digestion) and have a temperature at which they can perform optimally. Temperatures that are higher or lower will require more energy to perform the same task. Keeping your body, and the enzymes that it contains, at an optimal temperatures is a way to maximize the efficient use of energy.

Refers to things that happen during the twilight hours (dawn and dusk). This is in contract to "nocturnal" things that happen at night or "diurnal" things that happen during the day. Crepuscular animals such as deer, bears, and housecats tend to be the most active during these time periods.

A measurement that can be used to infer the health status of an organism. This is typically calculated by comparing a measurement like length to another like weight, for which a healthy ratio is known.

The human body-mass-index (BMI) can be considered a measurement of body condition, as this is derived from a person's height and the range of weights that are considered to be healthy for that height.

A fish with a high body condition is likely to be on the plump side with excess energy stored as a buffer for times of low food intake or high energy use, while a fish with low body condition would be skinny for its length and have low energy reserves.

The energy required for an organism to perform an action. This includes constant needs such as the maintenance of cells or voluntary actions like the use of muscles for swimming. Organisms must balance all of these metabolic costs with the intake of energy from food, or they will run an unsustainable deficit in their energy budget.

Describes the resistance of an object (or, in this case, an animal) to changes in temperature, and the speed at which it approaches the temperature of its surroundings. A warm fish with high thermal inertia would maintain its heat relatively well in cold waters, whereas a fish with low thermal inertia would lose its heat quickly in cold water and is more likely to have a body temperature that is similar to its surroundings.

The period that follows the high point in the tidal cycle (high tide) as the ebb current pulls water back towards the ocean.

"Diurnal" refers to things that happen during the daytime. This is the opposite of its antonym "nocturnal", which appears much more often in common speech to refer to animals that are active at night. In this case, "diurnal prey" is used to refer to the daytime activity of fish that the sharks may be feeding on.

An island formed when an extinct mid-ocean volcano surrounded by coral reefs is eroded and subsided beneath sea level, leaving only a coral reef ring visible above the ocean surface. These are found only in tropical and subtropical regions where corals can thrive and continue to build up a reef at a rate that keeps pace with the erosion and subsidence of the underlying volcano.

The three-point bend test provides values for the modulus of elasticity, and flexural stress and strain.

Modulus of elasticity is the ratio of the stress in a body to the corresponding strain.

Flexural stress is the maximum bending stress that can be applied to that material before it breaks.

Flexural Strain is the ratio of stress to strain in flexural deformation, or the tendency for a material to resist bending.

A class of biodegradable polymers which are characterized by anhydride bonds. In vivo, they degrade into non- toxic monomers that are metabolized and eliminated from the body.

A once a month, or every three month shot that contains a series of hormones designed to stop the body from releasing eggs, and thicken the cervix mucus, thus preventing pregnancy.

A flexible transparent ring of plastic placed in the vagina and releases estrogen and progestogen. This needs to be replaced once a month.

A daily pill that consists of progestin and estrogen to prevent pregnancy.

The opening from the stomach into the small intestine.

A once-a-week patch that adheres to the skin and releases the necessary hormones to prevent pregnancy.

Also called an IUD, this device is planted within the uterus in a t- shaped form to prevent pregnancy.

A small rod- like implant under the skin of the arm which releases the hormone progestin, to prevent pregnancy.

A drug or device used to prevent pregnancy.

Women who use daily contraceptives have a lack of commitment to taking their prescribed pill at the same time everyday.

The chemical breakdown of of a compound due to its reaction in the presence of water.

A statistical analysis test used to counteract false positive results within multiple comparisons. It is used when several independent or dependent tests are being performed simultaneously.

A synthetic steroid hormone that has similar effects on the body to progesterone and is often used in contraceptive pills.

An elastic substance occurring naturally or synthetically.

A polymer often used to improve a products processing characteristics, and its compatibility with other materials. It can be used to increase biodegradability, or used with a polymeric to plasticize a product.

A copolymer which is widely accepted for biomedical applications due to its biocompatibility, biodegradation rate, approval for clinical use, potential modification properties, and export opportunities to cultures with unpopular use of animal- derived products.

Production of complex living and non-living products from bio-compatible materials and cells to address medical challenges.

A network of biological materials surrounding cells throughout the body for protection and support.

Tiny devices that mimic the functions of human physiological systems such as organs and tissues.

Occurring or existing at the same time.

A lattice structure is a structure made of crisscross patterns of stripping. A 3D Voronoi lattice is used to help make objects lighter, but stronger.

formation of small blood vessels

Muscle tissue in the heart dies and is replaced with scar tissue. Leads to weakened blood flow and irregular heartbeats.

Electrical activity of the heart

Having a physical property that has different values when measured in different directions.

Needed for attachment of actin to Z-lines in skeletal muscle cells.

Human embryonic stem cell-derived cardiomyocytes

The development of new blood vessels.

Around a blood vessel.

The inside space of the blood vessel.

The arrangement of blood vessels in an organ or tissue.

Located in present-day Wyoming. Map of the Hanna Basin: https://www.wsgs.wyo.gov/docs/wsgs-web-hanna-basin-geologic-map.pdf

Image of Carsioptychus coarctatus provided by HHMI Tangled Bank Studios shows a rendering of this ancient herbivorous mammal. https://durangoherald.com/articles/300859

Known only to exist in North America, these placental mammals are readily identified by their unique teeth.

This is an extinct clade of turtles that appeared during the Jurassic and disappeared in the Eocene.

The calcium compound that is the main inorganic component of tooth enamel and bones. It gives bones and teeth rigidity.

The Cretaceous land mammal stage dating from 70 Ma to 66 Ma.

Population sizes are stable and remain within a sustainable range. They are in balance.

This is a graphic way to represent the succession of layers over time.

These are the living components of an ecosystem and includes the autotrophs, heterotrophs, and detritivores.

This occurs when biotic and/or abiotic change results in the biosphere or geosphere becoming unbalanced. It provides a way to explain the ecological and evolutionary changes observed in the fossil record.

This occurs when two or more species affect the evolution of each other.

This is an extinct species of hoofed, placental mammals. They are the largest known species of the genus.

Fossils/imprints from the past, referred to as proxies, can be used to determine what the paleoclimate was like. Examples of proxies are coral, pollen, and tree rings. These are analyzed and correlated with current climate conditions.

This is a morphological trait used as an indicator of the rates of photosynthesis and respiration. It is a way to link light capture to growth and carbon gain.

Many examples of members of the same genus are present. The area is species-rich.

This is the outer regions of the floodplain.

These were herbivorous mammals.

The saplings are located in their original place.

A skeleton that is all in one piece with the bones arranged in the correct order.

The physical traits of leaves, their morphology, is used to estimate the temperature.

A taxonomic species based only on its physical (morphological) differences from related species.

Flowering plants that have two seed leaves, or cotyledons, in the seed embryo.

Pollen produced by members of the walnut plant family.

Units of sediments deposited by rivers that have similar characteristics based on bedding and texture.

The interbedding of two distinctly different depositional environments.

The analysis of spores, pollen, and other particulate organic matter in sedimentary rock.

The Ma label is the abbreviation for mega annum and signifies time in millions of years.

Earth's north and south magnetic poles have reversed multiple times. Normal polarity occurs when the magnetic north points toward the geographic north pole. The reverse is the opposite. A record of the onset and duration of these reversals has been measured back to the Upper Jurassic.

This basin is located in northern New Mexico and southern Colorado.

Map: https://www.researchgate.net/figure/General-area-map-of-the-San-Juan-Basin-NM-Base-map-adapted-from-Esri-Streets-Data-and_fig1_266569834

This is an area where the underlying rocks are exposed.

These are plants that flower and fruit. They produce seeds enclosed within a female reproductive structure. It includes many non-woody plants, shrubs, and trees.

This is a clade that includes all living bird species and their ancestors, back to the common ancestor and all of the ancestor's descendants that did not evolve to form modern species.

This is a grouping of organisms that includes a single common ancestor and all the species descending from that ancestor, both living and extinct.

The proliferation of species from a single ancestor and their diversification into ecologically different forms.

This refers to things related to the land as opposed to aquatic or marine.

These are cold-blooded dinosaurs, not related to birds.

This refers to a family of plants that have nodules on their roots that contain nitrogen-fixing bacteria. The bacteria transform atmospheric nitrogen gas into nitrogen compounds plants are able to use.

This term refers to large plant species.

This is how an organism fits into the ecosystem—the role it plays. It is how it interacts with other species in a biological community.

The number of different species represented in an ecological community. It is not a count of the number of members of each species, but of the diversity of species present.

Factors that cause an event or phenomenon to occur.

A term used when something that was confusing is made clear.

The term lithophile was coined by Goldschmidt to describe elements with affinity for silicates. The Greek word lithophile means rock-loving. These elements are primarily found in regions with higher concentrations of silicate, e.g., the mantle and crust. A few examples of lithophile elements are Li, Na, Mg, Al and Si.

The term ‘δ¹³C-δ¹⁸O’ denotes the isotopic signatures of carbon and oxygen elements. An isotopic signature is calculated from the ratio of stable isotopes (13-C/12-C or 18-O/16-O) and expressed in parts per thousand.

A chemical element which constitutes less than 0.1% of a rock's composition.There is unique geochemical information stored in the variation of concentration of each trace element. Zn, Cd and Sr are a few examples of trace-elements.

Identified by mineral inclusions consistent with being exposed to high pressures found at depths of more than 400 kilometers.

Strontium-Neodymium-Hafnium-Lead

The area that separates the Earth's upper mantle from its lower mantle. The depth of this zone is usually between 410 to 660 kilometers beneath the Earth's surface.

Small quantities of gases or liquids that remain trapped inside minerals. These inclusions provide critical insights on the geological processes in the Earth's interior.

At depths of more than 410 kilometers underneath the Earth's surface.

Helium-Strontium-Lead

Refers to a mass of material that experiences a common set of chemical interactions. Reservoirs, in most cases, have distinct boundaries (e.g., an ocean).

Chemical elements that have the same number of electrons and protons but a different number of neutrons are called isotopes. For example, both carbon-12 and carbon-14 have six electrons and six protons, but they have 12 and 14 neutrons, respectively. These isotopic differences change the atom's atomic mass and other chemical properties.

people can often miss large changes in their visual fields if they are focused or distracted on something else.

cues of what one should do with the objects.

a perspective slightly above looking down

i reaaalllly think i should be doing a glossary list.

A laboratory strain of mice useful for studying cancer and immunology.

The process by which antigen-presenting cells uptake antigenic molecules from their surroundings, so that they may display them on their surface.

The process of exposing T cells to molecular signatures of disease through displaying them on the surface of antigen-presenting cells.

Outside of the living organism. In ex vivo experiments, cells originate in an organism, are extracted and modified, and then can be reintroduced.

Refers to the collection of recyclables including glass, paper, and plastic, all in the same recycling bin.

Refers to the range of garbage materials that are discarded as unwanted and useless. Landfills are often used as solid waste management systems.

One metric ton is equal to 1,000 kilograms or 2,204.6 pounds. One black rhinoceros weights approximately one metric ton. Source: Wikimedia

Another laboratory strain of mice useful for studying cancer and immunology.

Relating to or originating from mice.

An antibody able to bind two of its targets at once.

Two indicators of T cell activation. Once activated, T cells divide rapidly and produce a molecule called interleukin-2.

A related protein, usually with very similar sequence and structure.

A technique by which the genes in a cell are modified.

A family of binders to CD28. The two most important members are B7-1 and B7-2, mentioned below.

The target for T cell receptors is always a short peptide displayed on the surface of the cells. The protein responsible for displaying the peptides is called the major histocompatibility complex.

The receptor used by T cells to recognize specific antigens.

Molecules recognized by the immune system; signatures of disease.

Another receptor on the surface of T cells, with an opposite effect compared to CD28. Binding to CTLA-4 causes damping of T cell activation.

To become fully activated, T cells need to receive a signal through the CD28 receptor on their surface.

The ability of the immune system to recognize diseased or foreign cells.

This is an imaging technique that uses seismic waves generated by earthquakes and explosions to create computer-generated, three-dimensional images of Earth's interior. More information on how this technique works can be found here : https://www.iris.edu/hq/inclass/downloads/optional/269

These are very fine-grained particles which gradually accumulate on the ocean floor over time. These deposits comprise of both inorganic (by products of volcanic activities) and organic (marine plants and animals) matters.

Basalt is a type of igneous rocks which comprises 90% of all volcanic rocks. When these basalts are formed as a result of volcanic activities inside the ocean and away from the tectonic plate junctions, they are known as ocean island basalts.

A radiogenic isotope is formed by the process of radioactive decay. For instance, in this case, the stable isotope helium-4 is generated from the decay of a radioactive helium-4 nucleus.

Ancient reservoir in Earth's interior, composed of trapped gases that have not been removed.

A characterization technique used to study the structural and chemical properties of a material.

Hybridization is the combining or mixing up of atomic orbitals (an expected region of electron density around an atom) to form new hybrid orbitals that have geometries suitable to form bonds. Electrons can be found in s, p, d, and f orbitals. When an s orbital combines with three p orbitals, it results in four sp³ hybridized orbitals. Similarly, the combination of an s orbital with two p orbitals gives rise to three sp² hybrid orbitals.

Learn more about hybrid orbitals with these videos from Khan Academy.

The building block of graphite, which is used in pencil tips. Graphene is a one-atom-thick layer of carbon atoms arranged in a hexagonal lattice (with atoms arranged at the corners of a hexagon). The thickness of graphene is a million times less than that of a single human hair. Graphene is the world's first 2D material and the 2010 Nobel Prize in Physics was awarded for its discovery.

 Source: Wikimedia

A crystal is a 3D periodic array of atoms. Materials with regularly ordered arrays of components are termed crystalline materials.

Carbon nanotubes (CNTs) are rolled up cylinders of graphene sheets with diameters in the nanoscale. Based on geometry, they are termed as either single-walled (formed by rolling a single sheet of graphene) or multiwalled (multiple sheets of graphene) carbon nanotubes.

In a crystal, the atoms are arranged in a regular repeated pattern in a 3D lattice. A lattice is defined as the set of points representing these atomic positions.

Fullerene is the zero-dimensional form of graphitic carbon. The carbon atoms in fullerenes are arranged in closed shells.

Optical microscopes are instruments which use visible light and a system of lenses to produce magnified images of small objects.

A covalent bond is formed by the sharing of electrons between atoms. In the case of graphene, each carbon atom forms covalent bonds with three neighboring atoms of hexagons in a plane, with atoms placed in corners of the hexagon. This type of in-plane bonding is called intralayer covalent bonding.

Quasicrystals are materials with perfect long-range order, but with no 3D translational periodicity of crystals.

A high-purity graphite material with a high degree of preferred crystallographic orientation.

A perfect crystal is an idealization and in real materials, atom arrangements do not follow perfect crystalline patterns. Crystal defects can be due to missing atoms, introduction of an impurity, broken crystal patterns along fault lines, or the joining of distinct crystal planes.

Wear is the progressive loss of materials from contacting surfaces relative in motion. The wear process results in the generation of debris—or particles—of various size, shape, color distributions, and chemical composition.

An imaging technique capable of generating high-resolution (nanometer-scale) images of a sample.

Refers to the components in a friction system. Here, the DLC-coated ball and the graphene-plus-nanodiamonds constitute the tribopair.

A nanomaterial structure with a spiral-wrapped geometry. Think of a scroll, or a roll of paper, on the nanoscale.

The CNO was injected into the peritoneum, the thin membrane that lines the walls of the abdominal cavity. It travels through the circulation system, crosses the blood-brain barrier, and affects its target cells.

A subregion of a part of the brain called the thalamus.

The PVT has been shown to have a broad range of function, including involvement in fear, learning, arousal, and feeding behaviors.

The axon is a long, thin part of the neuron that facilitates communication between neurons. Axons extend from the cell body of a neuron to other parts of the brain, allowing communication between different brain regions.

Materials made of long, repeating chains of molecules. The term polymer is often used to describe plastics, which are synthetically made, but natural polymers also exist.

As the most common plastic, polyethylene is used for everything from plastic bags to bulletproof vests. Polypropylene is commonly used in chip bags, microwave dishes, and bottle caps. Some fabric textiles and many water bottles are made of polyethylene terephthalate (PET).

Plastics are notoriously persistent pollutants. It is estimated that a PET plastic water bottle will take anywhere from 100-500 years to degrade.

An economic system where waste and pollution are designed out, keeping products and services in closed loops or cycles. The circular economy is an alternative to a traditional linear economy in which products and materials are made, used, and disposed of.

The process of inserting drug molecules through the nose.

Following a path similar to the Brownian motion of small particles in fluid, which is random movement due to continuous collisions with the surrounding molecules in the fluid.

Coughed out from the throat or lungs.

Trapping something inside another object, or a capsule.

Here, encapsulation refers to trapping drug molecules inside the nanoparticle.

The process of combining different atoms, ions, or molecules to form one large molecule or ion due to electrostatic and/or hydrophobic interactions.

Steroid hormones that are produced in the kidneys or synthetically in the laboratory and can be used to treat inflammations.

Refers to the particles' ability to stay dispersed in a fluid without separating from the solution (precipitation) or forming big clusters (aggregation) within a period of time.

The diameter of a sphere that has the same hydrodynamic friction with that of the nanoparticle.

A form of bonding that does not involve the bonding between pairs of atoms.

Repelled by water molecules.

A polymer of two different polymer chains chemically bonded together in a specific order. For example, a linear diblock copolymer of the type A-B with 5 A monomers connected to 4 B monomers is a single chain A-A-A-A-A-B-B-B-B.

A polymer of three different polymer chains, which are chemically bonded together in a specific order. For example, a linear triblock copolymer of the type A-B-C with 5 A monomers connected to 4 B monomers connected to 5 C monomers is a single chain A-A-A-A-A-B-B-B-B-C-C-C-C-C.

Coated or surrounded in great extend by polymeric chains of poly(ethylene glycol).

CF stands for cystic fibrosis, a disease in the lungs.

Sputum is a mixture of saliva and mucus that is produced because of a disease, such as cystic fibrosis, and comes out of the the human body through the passage formed from the mouth, nose, throat, and lungs.

The joining of two or more chemical compounds.

Experiments taking place in test tubes, culture dishes, or other controlled environments outside of living organisms.

Experiments that take place in controlled external environments on tissues extracted from living organisms.

Experiments taking place inside living organisms.

To absorb and continue holding or keeping on a surface.

Have the ability to stick to mucus.

Mucus is a slimy substance that is produced in the human body (e.g. nose, throat, cervix) to protect and lubricate specific areas.

A pulmonary process is related to lung tissue.

Pulmonary drug delivery is the insertion of drug molecules to the human body through mouth to reach the lungs and treat lung-related diseases.

This is a mechanism to control production in biological settings. This means when something is being made (ex. protein) and reaches a certain concentration then the production is stopped. This can also be called a negative-feedback loop.

Fructose is only absorbed through diffusion into a cell, this means it relies on there being a lower concentration of fructose in a cell compared to the intestine. Passive absorption often leads to a saturation of the channels and so not as much fructose can be absorbed.

Sodium-coupled glucose transporters are found in the intestine. They use energy gathered from sodium ion transport into the bloodstream to generate energy to import glucose into a cell. Using energy to import a molecule up a concentration gradient (there is more glucose inside the cell than outside so it costs energy to import more) is termed active transport.

Wnt signaling is group of a pathways that regulate gene transcription and growth. Normally APC controls and limits growth that Wnt stimulates but when APC is deleted or mutated Wnt signaling is uncontrolled and leads to cancer formation.

Adenomatous Polyposis Coli is a tumor suppresor gene meaning that when it is functional, APC controls cell growth and prevents tumor formation. When it becomes mutated or deleted (as in the mouse models), uncontrolled cell growth leads to tumor formation.

Mature cells that are not capable of cell division.

Question that is being addressed here is: Compared to immature/developing neurons, does mature cells have a different machinery (or set of mechanisms) to synthesize RNA and different neurotransmittters?

A neurotransmitter that has reduced effects on the neurons.

Refers to a process during which a cell undergoes a shift in electric charge distribution. At rest, the membrane of a neuron has a potential of -60 to -70 millivolts (mV). This means the inside of the cell is negatively charged relative to the outside. Depolarization is when the potential becomes less negative than the resting potential.

"Neo" meaning new, "synaptogenesis" referring to the formation of connections between neurons.

Refers to the group of neurons present in the pons of the brain.

The pons is a brain region that links the medulla and the mid-brain. It serves as a message station between several areas of the brain.

Learn more about action potentials and membrane depolarization with Khan Academy. See also their video here.

Stands for standard error, a measure to test how far the mean of the sample is from the estimated mean of the population.

A structure that gives rise to the peripheral nervous system and non-neuronal cells.

These bodies, consisting of receptors and cells, are located near the carotid arteries. There are two carotid arteries that run on either side of the neck, carrying blood to the neck, face, and brain.

A structure that gives rise to neurons and other structures in the nervous system.

Learn more about placodes with another annotated paper: https://www.scienceintheclassroom.org/research-papers/hair-feathers-and-scales-evolutionary-tale

A regulation that controls the conversion of DNA to RNA in organisms. Learn more with this HHMI BioInteractive video.

A set of codes that helps the organism adapt and maintain life.

In this instance, regulation occurs at the gene level to adapt to environmental conditions.

A gland situated above the kidneys. Adrenal glands produce a variety of hormones.

Neuroendocrine cells are the cells that receive input from neurons and release a hormone into blood for output. Any hormone produced and released by neuroendocrine cells are referred to as neurohumoral products.

Connections between the sympathetic nervous system and adrenal system.

A neurotransmitter that can be released from exocrine glands; for instance, sweat glands.

Functions include relaxation of smooth muscles in the stomach and gall bladder, and contraction of heart muscles.

It has been shown that in sweat glands, both VIP and acetylcholine (or cholinergic) are released from the same population of neurons.

An enzyme that converts dihydroxyphenylalanine (DOPA) to dopamine.

Plasticity can be defined as the ability of the brain to mold and shape in response to experience. The change can be due to change in the receptors present in the brain, the chemicals itself, or the mechanism by which receptors respond to chemicals. 

Neurotransmitter plasticity refers to changes in neurotransmitters in response to plasticity.

Experiments that are performed on animals or humans.

Functions of the body that are essential for life; e.g., sleeping, eating, breathing, bladder activity.

The sympathetic nervous system is a part of the nervous system that controls the essential functions of life; for example, blood pressure and heart rate. The neurons present in this system are called sympathetic neurons.

You can think of the nervous system as electrical wiring, transmitting signals to and from different parts of the body. The system is made up of the brain, spinal cord, and nerves. Neurons are cells found in the brain.

The human nervous system is made up of two components, the central nervous system (CNS) and the peripheral nervous system (PNS). The PNS consists of nerves and fibers outside of the brain and spinal cord (which make up the CNS).

These are a class of neurotransmitters. Peptides are made of amino acids or a chain of amino acids.

Read more about the different neurotransmitters here.

Refers to the cells that release neurotransmitter acetylcholine.

Learn more in this video about neurotransmitter release: https://www.khanacademy.org/science/health-and-medicine/nervous-system-and-sensory-infor/neural-cells-and-neurotransmitters/v/neurotransmitter-release

Refers to cells that release the neurotransmitter, norepinephrine. An alternative name for norepinephrine is noradrenalin.