What impressions do you want people to form of you based on the information they can see on your Facebook page?

Just looking at Facebook as an example

Figure: People who have been out of work for a while may have difficulty finding the motivation to engage in the self-presentation behaviors needed to form favorable impressions. Steve Petrucelli – Inte

The representations we see in the media affect our self-perception

Biracial individuals may have challenges with self-perception as they try to integrate both racial identities into their self-concept.

Men are more likely than women to include group memberships in their self-concept descriptions. Stefano Ravalli – In control – CC BY-NC

the company may not hire her.

Clothing, like a doctor’s lab coat, forms powerful impressions that have noticeable effects on people’s behavior. Lisa Brewster – Happy doctor – CC BY-SA 2.0. Just as clothi

a goth person, a prep, a jock, a fashionista, a hipster.

Imagine that a professor has maintained a relatively high level of credibility with you over the course of the semester. She made a good first impression by being organized, approachable, and interesting during the first days of class. The rest of the semester went fairly well with no major conflicts. However, during the last week of the term, she didn’t have final papers graded and ready to turn back by the time she said she would, which left you with some uncertainty about how well you needed to do on the final exam to earn an A in the class. When you did get your paper back, on the last day of class, you saw that your grade was much lower than you expected.

So not only do first impressions matter, but having the ability to form accurate first impressions seems to correlate to many other positive characteristics. First impressions are

People who are able to form accurate first impressions tend to have more satisfying relationships and more quickly advance in their careers. Reynermedia – Businessmen shaking hands – CC BY 2.0.

Frustrated drivers often use internal attributions to explain other drivers’ behaviors. Beelgin – ROAD RAGE FIST – CC BY 2.0.

Are you a good judge of character? How quickly can you “size someone up?

We interpret information using schemata, which allow us to assign meaning to information based on accumulated knowledge and previous experience.

She has had some questions along the way and has e-mailed Joe for clarification and input, but he hasn’t responded.

Where does a conflict begin and end?

We also organize information that we take in based on difference.

Since we organize perceptual information based on proximity, a person may perceive that two people are together, just because they are standing close together in line. Wikimedia Commons – public domain.

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Second, read your papers backward.

We often include what we do for a living in our self-introductions, which then provides a schema through which others interpret our communication. David Weekly

kinetic molecular theory of gases

Activism has driven the field and community action is a recurring principle in Ethnic Studies classrooms and scholarship. These frameworks reflect the different standpoints that advocates and community organizers bring into the process of creating change and how activism takes place.

We commit this fallacy when, instead of attacking an opponent’s views, we attack the opponent. What makes this a fallacy is the disconnect between the reason and the claim.

An extremely common technique is to suggest that a claim is true because it is widely accepted. Of course, we do legitimately need to refer to other people's opinions as guides to our own at times.

Obviously, lying about who we are or what we believe in is not a valid way to build trust. An appeal to a shared identity that is not really shared or an appeal to a shared value that the writer does not really hold is certainly a breach of trust.

If we describe their ideas and feelings with accuracy, respect and empathy, they may soften. If they feel seen rather than judged, they may be more open to what we have to say.

Just as arguments can change tone and emotional appeal, they can appeal to trust differently and create different imagined relationships with the reader at different moments. Arguments don’t need to choose one point of view and stick with it; many arguments move between “I,” “we,” “you” and the impersonal, shifting from sentence to sentence. Too many shifts could be jarring for the reader, but some variety can be refreshing. Thus, a single argument can offer different ways for the reader to relate to the ideas at hand.

As readers, we want to believe that the writer is giving us a fair overview of what they know. If a writer fails to mention something relevant that makes them look bad, readers may well hear it from an opponent and consider the writer to have wrongly concealed it. Acknowledging points that actually hurt the writer's argument can help to demonstrate openness and honesty. This includes a writer's motivations, even those that involve self-interest.

A part of our trust in a writer or in another person in any relationship is based on our perception of their moral character.

f the reader feels that the writer understands the reader's perspective and uses that understanding to make the experience of reading the argument as straightforward and intellectually pleasant as possible, the reader will trust the writer more

Regardless of how formal or informal or how intimate or distanced the argument is, if the reader feels the writer is disrespectful and doesn’t care about the reader’s perspective or experience, the reader will lose trust.

We don’t tend to trust people who don’t respect us and don’t wish us well.

Apart from the question of whether or not referring to another group is right in a specific case, writers should also be aware of ways in which negative references can undermine trust, especially if the audience ends up being broader than the writer initially envisioned. Sometimes putting the opposition in a group can backfire and hurt an argument more than it help.

Sometimes writers feel that the most powerful thing they have in common with readers is opposition to a group rather than membership in a group. They can try to get readers on their side by focusing on a group they presume the reader does not or will not want to belong to. Defining that group negatively becomes the basis for unity and trust between writer and reader

Even if the group identity in question is not an emotionally charged one, referring to it can help readers feel connected to the writer and the argument

One way to create sense of connection and trust is to point to an identity that writer and reader share. If emotions are bound up in that identity, this can be a powerful way to gain trust and to encourage readers to care about the argument.

many arguments in academic journals nowadays do use “I” on occasion, especially in introductions and conclusions. They use it judiciously when the personal experience of the writer is relevant to the argument. In addition to offering an emotional connection, personal anecdotes give readers a sense that the author is a person who is reaching out to us as people.

An argument could be both intimate and formal, like a marriage vow, but that combination is rare. Usually the more comfortable we are and the more we share about ourselves in an argument, the less formal the style. Conversely, the less formal the style, the friendlier and more connected the argument usually feels

This approach to earning the reader's trust is all about setting aside the personal to pursue objective, neutral, unbiased pronouncements. It requires the writer to step back from their own personality and feelings to ally their speech with impersonal truth

n academic research papers, we want readers to see that we have done due diligence and can represent a range of authorities on the subject.

When a writer has no particular qualification in relation to the subject, they can still establish a certain degree of authority by citing authoritative sources

Even though she has no experience of immigration, she can be considered an authority on her own sense of morality.

we can speak with authority

We are all authorities on our own experiences, feelings, and values

they can provide evidence of that reputation

How can a writer convince us that they are an expert on a topic? In general, they need to show that experts in their field have recognized some level of competence or leadership in them

So the most common and ready way to establish trust is to make sure readers know what makes the writer an authority on the subject at hand

Focusing on trust and relationship allows us to see how nuanced argument can be and how varied its effects on different readers. An argument is not an equation. Not only does it affect our emotions, but, like a movie, a song, a novel, or a poem, it invites us into a lived experience

When we analyze an argument, we can ask ourselves what kind of roles and interactions the words imply.

he writer draws the reader close, beckons the reader to their side, or holds the reader at arm's length. They choose a style typical of the role they imagine, whether of a friend, confidante, preacher, doctor, or expert

To understand each of these approaches to trust, it will help to think of an argument not as words blared through a loudspeaker into the void, but as an offering within the context of a relationship.

Trust provides an underlying foundation for the success of emotional and logical appeals.

we saw in Chapter 8, arguments attempt to affect our emotions, but their success depends on how well writers have gauged their readers' values and cultural associations. Now we can back up and look at readers' responses through a different lens: that of trust.

Early recognition and diagnosis of narcolepsy could be significant for certain treatment possibilities.

Both the caffeine in coffee and the theophylline in tea are examples of such adenosine antagonists and are well known for their stimulant effects.

NREM sleep

REM sleep is a distinct, homeostatically controlled brain state characterized by an activated electroencephalogram (EEG) in combination with paralysis of skeletal muscles and is associated with vivid dreaming.

This theory states that we sleep to conserve energy and is based on the fact that the metabolic rate is lower during sleep. The theory predicts that total sleep time and NREM sleep time will be proportional to the amount of energy expended during wakefulness

Integrated Information Theory of Consciousness (IITC)

May 29, 2017; Mark Hrywna, “2017 NPT Best Nonprofits to Work,” The NonProfit Times, http://thenonprofittimes.com, accessed May 27, 2017; Mark Hrywna, “2016 NPT Best Nonprofits to Work,” The NonProfit Times, http://thenonprofittimes.com, accessed May 27, 2017; Kyle Dickman, “The Future of Disaster Relief Isn’t the Red Cross,” Outside, https://www.outsideonline.com, August 25, 2016.

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follows the rules, is easy to read, and attracts the reader.

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Primary production provides plentiful food resources for ocean consumers, so a high abundance of phytoplankton is a good thing, right? As in many other cases, too much of a good thing can sometimes be dangerous, and an overabundance of dinoflagellates or diatoms can often create serious concerns. These events are referred to as harmful algal blooms, or HABs. HABs can occur for a number of reasons, although a common one is an overabundance of nutrients, which is often due to excessive terrestrial runoff of fertilizers or other nitrogen- and phosphate-containing materials. These conditions lead to an explosion in algal populations that can change the color of the water if the cells are in high enough concentrations. Figure 7.2.47.2.4\PageIndex{4} shows a massive bloom that contained so many dinoflagellate cells that it turned the water reddish-brown, a so-called “red tide.” (It has been suggested that Biblical references to seas being “turned to blood” may have actually been describing red tide events).

precipitation

Some of the additional complexity is because in addition to the moon, the sun also exerts tide-affecting forces on Earth. The solar gravitational and inertial forces arise for the same reasons described above for the moon, but the magnitudes of the forces are different. The sun is 27 million times more massive than the moon, but it is 387 times farther away from the Earth. Despite its larger mass, because the sun is so much farther away than the moon, the sun’s gravitational forces are only about half as strong as the moon’s (remember that distance is cubed in the gravity equation). The sun thus creates its own, smaller water bulges, independent of the moon’s, that contribute to the creation of tides.

persuasion can address behaviors—observable actions on the part of listeners—and it can also address intangible thought processes in the form of attitudes, values, and beliefs.

Notice that the goal is not to encourage people to use that knowledge in any specific way. When a speaker starts encouraging people to use knowledge in a specific way, he or she is no longer informing but is persuading.

St. Augustine of Hippo also wrote about three specific speech purposes: to teach (provide people with information), to delight (entertain people or show people false ideas), and to sway (persuade people to a religious ideology).

Cicero also talked about three purposes: judicial (courtroom speech), deliberative (political speech), and demonstrative (ceremonial speech—similar to Aristotle’s epideictic).

________________________________________________________

lower electron affinities.

During the adjourning stage, a group dissolves because its purpose has been met, because membership has declined or the group has lost support, or due to some other internal or external cause. It is important that groups reflect on the life of the group to learn any relevant lessons and celebrate accomplishments.

During the performing stage, group members work relatively smoothly toward the completion of a task or the achievement of their purpose, ideally capitalizing on the synergy that comes from the diverse experiences group members bring to the decision-making process.

During the norming stage, the practices and expectations (norms and rules) of the group are solidified, which leads to more stability, productivity, and cohesion within the group.

During the storming stage, conflict emerges as group members begin to perform their various roles, have their ideas heard, and negotiate where they fit in the group’s structure. Conflict is inevitable and important as a part of group development and can be productive if it is managed properly.

During the forming stage, group members engage in socially polite exchanges to help reduce uncertainty and gain familiarity with new members. Even though their early interactions may seem unproductive, they lay the groundwork for cohesion and other group dynamics that will play out more prominently in later stages.

The five stages of group development include forming, storming, norming, performing, and adjourning.

The brain is a complex system, and only advances in brain research will show whether the brain can ever really understand itself.

an external voltage is applied to drive a nonspontaneous reaction. In this section, we look at how electrolytic cells are constructed and explore some of their many commercial applications.

The reductant is the substance that loses electrons and is oxidized in the process; the oxidant is the species that gains electrons and is reduced in the process

separate

on—in which the atoms of one element gain electrons. Consider, for example, the reaction of Cr2+(aq) with manganese dioxide (MnO2) in the presence of dilute acid. Equation 6.2.16.2.1\ref{20.2.1} is the net ion

compounds

Compounds of the alkali (oxidation number +1) and alkaline earth metals (oxidation number +2) are typically ionic in nature. Compounds of metals with higher oxidation numbers (e.g., tin +4) tend to form molecular compounds In ionic and covalent molecular compounds usually the less electronegative element is given first. In ionic compounds the names are given which refer to the oxidation (ionic) state In molecular compounds the names are given which refer to the number of molecules present in the compound

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valence orbital size tends to increase down a group

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Fair use weighs heavily in favor of educational uses. So in most cases, using images and/or videos you’ve found online for your presentation for class is not going to land you in hot water. Why is this? Using an image or video that belongs to somebody else without permission for an educational use is not likely to impact the potential market, it is only being shared with the people in your class, and it is being used to educate yourself and others. It is still always good practice to cite where the content came from and try to use openly licensed content that allows people to use it without seeking permission first (see “Creative Commons” section below) whenever possible.

When you avoid plagiarism by citing your sources, you are respecting the time and energy other people put into creating their intellectual property. Just like physical property that you can call your own, intellectual property describes an expression of the human mind that can be owned and protected. Once somebody puts their creative ideas into a fixed and tangible format, like in the form of a book, movie, or song, that becomes intellectual property and can be protected. Intellectual property comes in many forms, but the most popular are copyright, patents, and trademarks. Copyright is the most common form of intellectual property that has relevance for college-level research

The Merriam-Webster dictionary defines the word plagiarize as “to steal and pass off (the ideas or words of another) as one’s own: use (another’s production) without crediting the source.” When you use the words and ideas of others in your own work without citing where you got that information from, this is considered plagiarism. Whether a student purposely tries to pass off information as their own (i.e., copying and pasting text or paraphrasing another source without giving credit) or does so unintentionally (i.e., not knowing how to cite sources), plagiarism goes against the moral and ethical code for students called academic integrity. Academic integrity is the expectation that all students will be honest and responsible and will not plagiarize or cheat and that they will be motivated by more than just getting good grades. Most colleges have consequences for violating academic integrity, which may include suspension or expulsion from the institution.

As a college student, whenever you complete an academic assignment, be it a research paper, a speech, or any other assignment in which you gather and synthesize information on a topic, you are participating in what is called a scholarly conversation. The term scholarly conversation describes the existing body of knowledge about a topic. This body of knowledge may include published books, presentations, research articles, conferences, discussions, online resources, and more. Your assignments are a way to add your own voice to the scholarly conversation—by reviewing what research has been done, drawing connections and conclusions from published information, and adding your own experiences, opinions, and ideas about what previous research has shown.

In general, it is best to use a quote when: The exact words of your source are important for the point you are trying to make. This is especially true if you are quoting technical language, terms, or very specific word choices. You want to highlight your agreement with the author’s words. If you agree with the point the author of the evidence makes and you like their exact words, use them as a quote. You want to highlight your disagreement with the author’s words. In other words, you may sometimes want to use a direct quote to indicate exactly what it is you disagree about. This might be particularly true when you are considering the antithetical positions in your research writing projects.

By incorporating the name of the author of the evidence the research writer is referring to here, the source of this paraphrase is now clear to the reader. Furthermore, because there is a page number at the end of this sentence, the reader understands that this passage is a paraphrase of a particular part of Callahan’s essay and not a summary of the entire essay. Again, if the research writer had introduced this source to his readers earlier, he could have started with a phrase like “Callahan suggests...” and then continued on with his paraphrase

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social psychology—the study of the feelings, behaviors, and thoughts of individuals in the social situation.

anatomy and physiology

What about curlers and other accouterments associated with female behavior and dress—should facilities allow trans-women with male “plumbing” to have them also?

If facilities provide women with bras, do we provide trans-women with bras as well?

Should Facilities place a trans-woman in a female housing unit even though she still possesses male genitalia?

How should we approach searches of intersex inmates?

Should Facilities conduct searches differently with transgender inmates based on their gender identity?

Housing heterosexual inmates is straightforward, all other classification factors being equal. For homosexual and lesbian inmates, many correctional facilities do not have a blanket policy of segregation.

Cases being heard in courts all over the country are addressing aspects such as the provision of hormonal medications to transgender offenders, the continuation of transgender-specific medical procedures, and the development of gender awareness in areas such as housing and searches.

Paraphrase When we paraphrase, we are processing information or ideas from another person’s text and putting it in our own words. The main difference between paraphrase and summary is scope: if summarizing means rewording and condensing, then paraphrasing means rewording without drastically altering length. However, paraphrasing is also generally more faithful to the spirit of the original; whereas a summary requires you to boil down a large piece of text into a sentence or two, thereby losing some nuance, a paraphrase ought to mirror back the original idea using your own language. Paraphrasing is helpful for establishing background knowledge or general consensus, simplifying a complicated idea, or reminding your reader of a certain part of another text. It is also valuable when relaying statistics or historical information, both of which are usually more fluidly woven into your writing when spoken with your own voice.

araphrase Giraffes emit a low-pitch noise; some scientists believe that this hum can be used for communication with other members of the social group, but others are skeptical because of the dearth of research on giraffe noises. According to Baotic et al., the anatomy of the animal suggests that they may be making deliberate and specific noises (3).

mportant Reminder! Whether summary, paraphrase, or quotation, you need to use an in-text citation! For every in-text citation, ensure there is a matching entry on the Works Cited page! Also, remember to use information from sources only to support your own argument. For a research essay, a healthy ratio is generally no more than 10% to 20% material from sources to 80% your own original ideas, argument, interpretation, analysis, and explanation. This is not a rule as much as a reminder to think critically about how much your writing relies on the ideas of others: unless the assignment is a summary or literature

mmary, as discussed earlier in this chapter, is useful for “broadstrokes” or quick overviews, brief references, and providing plot or character background. When you summarize, you reword and condense another author’s writing. Be aware, though, that summary also requires individual thought: when you reword, it should be a result of you processing the idea yourself, and when you condense, you must think critically about which parts of the text are most important. As you can see in the example that follows one summary shows understanding and puts the original into the author’s own words; the other summary is a result of a passive rewording, where the author only substituted synonyms for the original.

araphrasing is similar to the process of summary. When we paraphrase, we process information or ideas from another person’s text and put it in our own words. The main difference between paraphrase and summary is scope: if summarizing means rewording and condensing, then paraphrasing means rewording without drastically altering length. However, paraphrasing is also generally more faithful to the spirit of the original; whereas a summary requires you to process and invites your own perspective, a paraphrase ought to mirror back the original idea using your own language.

hether you’re writing a summary or broaching your analysis, using support from the text will help you clarify ideas, demonstrate your understanding, or further your argument, among other things. Three distinct methods, which Bruce Ballenger refers to as “The Notetaker’s Triad,” will allow you to process and reuse information from your focus text.13

e posterior region of the cortex is the occipital lobe, which has no obvious anatomical border between it and the parietal or temporal lobes on the lateral surface of the brain

he parietal lobes are located posterior to the frontal lobes at the top of the head. The parietal lobes are involved in body sensations, including temperature, touch, and pain

This module starts with the value of an embryologic perspective, and then discusses the formation of the neural tube, embryonic brain development (the process of the anterior neural tube differentiates into primary and secondary vesicles), postnatal brain development, spinal cord development, and neuron development.

. “Male correctional officers and staff contribute to a custodial environment in state prisons for women which is often highly sexual and excessively hostile”.

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better speakers know how to use language in response to specific contexts in order to be successful, hence thinking about what contexts require more or less powerful language is always a good idea

First, ethical communication is that which does not unfairly label one thing or another based on personal bias

it is important to think about the connotations

Review

the interface

The third major part of the neuron is the axon, coming out of the soma like a hose. The axon carries the output messages of a neuron (nerve impulses) along its length to its axon terminals (axon endings). There is only one axon per neuron, although it can branch into multiple axon terminals. In a typical neuron, the root end of the axon emerges out of the soma at a small swelling called the axon hillock. Between the axon hillock and the first segment of the axon is where the nerve impulse is first generated (see discussion of the action potential, the nerve impulse, that follows below).

Myelinated and Unmyelinated Axons Some axons have a glial cell covering known as the myelin sheath. The glial cells capable of producing myelin include oligodendrocytes of the CNS and the Schwann cells of the PNS. This fatty, insulating, myelin sheath has gaps in it, revealing the bare axon, at regular intervals along the axon's length. These bare spots along the length of a myelinated axon are called nodes, or nodes of Ranvier, after their discoverer. Figure 5.1.35.1.3\PageIndex{3}: Nodes of Ranvier. Nodes of Ranvier are gaps in the myelin sheath which covers myelinated axons. Nodes contain voltage-gated potassium (K+) and sodium (Na+) channels. Action potentials travel down the axon by "jumping"from one node to the next, speeding conduction of the action potential down the length of the axon toward the axon ending, also known as the axon bouton, axon button, or axon terminal. The function of the myelin sheath and the nodes is to speed up the rate at which nerve impulses travel down the length of the axon toward their destination, the axon terminal. In myelinated axons, the impulses sort of "jump" from node to node allowing the action potential to move more rapidly down the axon. This leaping of the nerve impulse (action potential) from node to node is called saltatory conduction, from the Latin "saltatore" which means to dance. Imagine the romantic image of the impulse dancing from node to node. More details on the electrical nature of this conduction will be addressed in the next section of this chapter. Not all axons are myelinated. Unmyelinated axons tend to be older in evolution and to be the smaller diameter axons (classified as C fibers based on their small diameters; large diameter myelinated axons are called A fibers). In unmyelinated axons, in order to move, the nerve impulse must be regenerated at every successive point along the axon. This takes time and slows the conduction of the nerve impulse (the action potential) down the length of the axon. Therefore, conduction of the action potential down the length of an unmyelinated axon is relatively slow. An example of unmyelinated C fibers are axons that are part of slow pain pathways. These pathways mediate the slower aching pain that follows tissue damage. The quick, sharp pain from an injury is mediated by larger diameter A fibers (axons). Not sure if figure below is needed.

Neuron Anatomy and The Synapse To understand neuron function, it is important to review the neuronal anatomy presented previously. Although there are some exceptions, neurons have three major structural parts - - the soma or cell body, dendrites (the "receivers" of the neuron), and the axon (the ouput end of the neuron). The entire neuron is bounded by a cell membrane, the neuronal membrane. The neuronal membrane of a neuron has channels or "doors" for ions (electrically charged atoms) which are able to pass through the membrane when specific channels are opened. Figure 5.1.15.1.1\PageIndex{1} shows this basic neuron anatomy. The soma or cell body contains organelles, such as ribosomes and mitochondria which are common to most types of cells in the body. These are involved in the basic metabolism of the cell. The soma also contains the nucleus, where the genes and chromosomes (containing DNA) are located. The second main part of the neuron are the dendrites, the information receivers of the neuron. Dendrites in some neurons can branch profusely (dendritic trees), expanding the region of the neuron that can receive inputs from other neurons. The receptor sites (or more technically, postsynaptic receptor sites because of their location on the receiving or postsynaptic neuron) which receive molecules of neurotransmitter are located on the dendrites (and, to a lesser degree, on the soma) of the receiving neuron. On the dendrites are small dendritic spines which are associated with the connections between neurons (the synapses) and can change shape rapidly when learning occurs. Notice that the spines are not the same thing as dendritic branches. In Figure 5.1.25.1.2\PageIndex{2}, a dendritic branch with dendritic spines is shown on the left in microscopic detail, and on the right, are dendritic trees of two types of neuron found in the retina. Spines are not visible in the images of dendritic trees on the right because the dendritic spines are too small, while dendritic branches comprising the dendritic trees can easily be seen (see caption for Figure 5.1.25.1.2\PageIndex{2}). Note: A detailed discussion of the structure of the synapse and synaptic communication will be covered later in this chapter.

In this section, we continue our exploration of neurons, the building blocks of the nervous system. We examine how they generate electrochemical signals, and how the billions of neurons in the nervous system communicate with one another, a process known as synaptic transmission. Before tackling these topics, we review and expand the basic anatomy and functioning of neurons covered in part in Chapter 4. A sound grasp of these facts provides the groundwork for understanding how neuron potentials are generated within neurons and how they combine to trigger synaptic transmission. As you read, remember that the voltages and chemical events we discuss in this section, operating in large populations of brain cells, somehow generate our perceptions, thoughts, emotions, and the entirety of our mental experience. To date, how this happens, how patterns of neuron potentials in brain circuits become conscious minds, remains the greatest mystery of all facing modern science.

Neuron Structure The main thing that makes neurons special and differentiates them from other cells in the body is that they have many extensions of their cell membranes, generally referred to as processes. Neurons are usually described as having one, and only one, axon—a fiber that emerges from the cell body and projects to target cells. That single axon can branch repeatedly to communicate with many target cells. It is the axon that propagates the nerve impulse (also called an action potential), which is communicated to one or more cells. The other processes of the neuron are dendrites, which receive information from other neurons across specialized areas called synapses. The dendrites are usually highly branched processes, providing locations for other neurons to communicate with the cell body. Information flows through a neuron from the dendrites, across the cell body, and down the axon. Figure 4.1.54.1.5\PageIndex{5} shows the structure of a typical neuron. The main parts of a neuron are labeled in the figure and described below. Figure 4.1.54.1.5\PageIndex{5}: Neuron. A somatic motor neuron (in the CNS) with labeled structures: cell membrane, dendrites, cell body (soma), axon, axon hillock, node of Ranvier, myelin sheath, axon terminal, and synaptic end bulbs (also called axon terminal buttons). The oligodendrocyte shown to the side of the axon is a glial cell that forms the myelin sheath surrounding the axon. The cell body (or soma; soma = "body") is the part of a neuron that contains the nucleus (shown as an oval structure in the center of the cell body, but not labeled) and most of the major organelles. The cell body is usually quite compact, and may not be much wider than the nucleus. The cell membrane is the structure that surrounds all the surfaces of the cell (including the dendrites and axon) and separates the inside of the cell from the outside of the cell. Dendrites are thin structures that are extensions of the cell body. Their function is to receive messages (excitatory and inhibitory post-synaptic potentials, EPSPs/IPSPs- see the nervous system communication chapter) from other cells and carry them to the cell body. A neuron may have many dendrites, and each dendrite may branch repeatedly to form a dendrite “tree” with more than 1,000 dendritic branches. Dendritic spines (small extensions on the surface of the dendritic branches) further increase surface area for receiving messages, allowing a given neuron to communicate with thousands of other cells. The axon is a long, thin extension of the cell body. It transmits nerve impulses away from the cell body and toward other cells. The axon hillock is a small bulge found at the base of motor neuron axons. The nerve impulse (or action potential) starts from the axon hillock. The axon branches at the end, forming the axon terminal. Branches of the axon terminal end in axon terminal buttons (also called axon endings, synaptic end bulbs, synaptic buttons/boutons, bouton terminaux, etc.) These are the points where the message is transmitted to other cells (via the release of chemicals called neurotransmitters), often to the dendrites of other neurons. A small gap called a synapse (also called a synaptic gap or synaptic cleft) is located between the end of the axon terminal and the surface of the receiving cell. An axon may branch hundreds of times, but there is never more than one axon per neuron. Many axons (especially the long axons of nerves in the peripheral nervous system) are covered by sections of myelin (also called the myelin sheath). The myelin sheath is composed of lipid layers that surround the axon. Myelin is a very good electrical insulator, like the plastic or rubber that encases an electrical cord. Axons that are covered by sections of myelin are called myelinated, whereas axons without myelin sheaths are called unmyelinated. Regularly spaced gaps between sections of myelin occur along the axon. (The gaps are actually much further apart than is shown in the figure- it is necessary to shrink the distance to fit all the structures in a diagram!) These gaps are called nodes of Ranvier, and they allow the transmission of nerve impulses along the axon. Nerve impulses jump from node to node in a process called saltatory conduction, allowing nerve impulses to travel along the axon very rapidly. The oligodendrocyte shown in the figure is a glial cell that produces myelin sheaths in the central nervous system (brain and spinal cord)- see the Glia section below.

Neuron Structure The main thing that makes neurons special and differentiates them from other cells in the body is that they have many extensions of their cell membranes, generally referred to as processes. Neurons are usually described as having one, and only one, axon—a fiber that emerges from the cell body and projects to target cells. That single axon can branch repeatedly to communicate with many target cells. It is the axon that propagates the nerve impulse (also called an action potential), which is communicated to one or more cells. The other processes of the neuron are dendrites, which receive information from other neurons across specialized areas called synapses. The dendrites are usually highly branched processes, providing locations for other neurons to communicate with the cell body. Information flows through a neuron from the dendrites, across the cell body, and down the axon. Figure 4.1.54.1.5\PageIndex{5} shows the structure of a typical neuron. The main parts of a neuron are labeled in the figure and described below. Figure 4.1.54.1.5\PageIndex{5}: Neuron. A somatic motor neuron (in the CNS) with labeled structures: cell membrane, dendrites, cell body (soma), axon, axon hillock, node of Ranvier, myelin sheath, axon terminal, and synaptic end bulbs (also called axon terminal buttons). The oligodendrocyte shown to the side of the axon is a glial cell that forms the myelin sheath surrounding the axon. The cell body (or soma; soma = "body") is the part of a neuron that contains the nucleus (shown as an oval structure in the center of the cell body, but not labeled) and most of the major organelles. The cell body is usually quite compact, and may not be much wider than the nucleus. The cell membrane is the structure that surrounds all the surfaces of the cell (including the dendrites and axon) and separates the inside of the cell from the outside of the cell. Dendrites are thin structures that are extensions of the cell body. Their function is to receive messages (excitatory and inhibitory post-synaptic potentials, EPSPs/IPSPs- see the nervous system communication chapter) from other cells and carry them to the cell body. A neuron may have many dendrites, and each dendrite may branch repeatedly to form a dendrite “tree” with more than 1,000 dendritic branches. Dendritic spines (small extensions on the surface of the dendritic branches) further increase surface area for receiving messages, allowing a given neuron to communicate with thousands of other cells. The axon is a long, thin extension of the cell body. It transmits nerve impulses away from the cell body and toward other cells. The axon hillock is a small bulge found at the base of motor neuron axons. The nerve impulse (or action potential) starts from the axon hillock. The axon branches at the end, forming the axon terminal. Branches of the axon terminal end in axon terminal buttons (also called axon endings, synaptic end bulbs, synaptic buttons/boutons, bouton terminaux, etc.) These are the points where the message is transmitted to other cells (via the release of chemicals called neurotransmitters), often to the dendrites of other neurons. A small gap called a synapse (also called a synaptic gap or synaptic cleft) is located between the end of the axon terminal and the surface of the receiving cell. An axon may branch hundreds of times, but there is never more than one axon per neuron. Many axons (especially the long axons of nerves in the peripheral nervous system) are covered by sections of myelin (also called the myelin sheath). The myelin sheath is composed of lipid layers that surround the axon. Myelin is a very good electrical insulator, like the plastic or rubber that encases an electrical cord. Axons that are covered by sections of myelin are called myelinated, whereas axons without myelin sheaths are called unmyelinated. Regularly spaced gaps between sections of myelin occur along the axon. (The gaps are actually much further apart than is shown in the figure- it is necessary to shrink the distance to fit all the structures in a diagram!) These gaps are called nodes of Ranvier, and they allow the transmission of nerve impulses along the axon. Nerve impulses jump from node to node in a process called saltatory conduction, allowing nerve impulses to travel along the axon very rapidly. The oligodendrocyte shown in the figure is a glial cell that produces myelin sheaths in the central nervous system (brain and spinal cord)- see the Glia section below.

Nervous Tissue Cell Types Nervous tissue is composed of two types of cells: neurons (also called nerve cells) and glia (also called glial cells or neuroglia), as shown in Figure 4.1.34.1.3\PageIndex{3}. Neurons are responsible for the computation and communication that the nervous system provides. They are electrically active and release chemical signals to target cells. Glia are known to play a supporting role for nervous tissue. Ongoing research pursues an expanded role that glial cells might play in signaling, but neurons are still considered the basis of this function. Neurons are important, but without glial support they would not be able to perform their function.

Summary The nervous system coordinates all of the body’s voluntary and involuntary actions by transmitting electrical and chemical signals to and from different parts of the body. The two main divisions of the nervous system are the central nervous system (CNS, the brain and the spinal cord), and the peripheral nervous system (PNS, all other nervous tissue in the body). Nervous tissue contains two major cell types, neurons and glial cells. Neurons are the cells responsible for communication through electrical signals. Glial cells are supporting cells, maintaining the environment around the neurons. The structures that differentiate neurons from other body cells are the extensions of their cell membranes, namely one axon that projects to target cells, and one or more dendrites, which receive information from other neurons across specialized areas called synapses. The axon propagates nerve impulses (action potentials), which are communicated to one or more cells. Neurons can be classified depending on their structure, function, or other characteristics. One structural classification is based on the number of processes the neuron has- one (unipolar), two (bipolar) or many (multipolar). One functional classification groups neurons into those that participate in sensation (sensory neurons), integration (interneurons) or motor (motor neurons) functions. Some other ways of classifying neurons include what they look like, where they are found, who found them, what they do, or what neurotransmitters they use. The nervous tissue in the brain and spinal cord consists of gray matter and white matter. Gray matter contains the cell bodies and dendrites of neurons and white matter contains myelinated axons. Typically, neurons cannot divide to form new neurons. Recent animal research indicates that some limited neurogenesis is possible, but the extent to which this applies to adult humans is unknown. Several types of glial cells are found in the nervous system, including astrocytes, oligodendrocytes, microglia, and ependymal cells in the CNS, and satellite cells and Schwann cells in the PNS. Astrocytes contribute to the blood-brain barrier that protects the brain. Oligodendrocytes and Schwann cells create the myelin that insulates many axons, allowing nerve impulses to travel along the axon very rapidly.

Overview of the Nervous System The nervous system, illustrated in Figure 4.1.24.1.2\PageIndex{2}, is the human organ system that coordinates all of the body’s voluntary and involuntary actions by transmitting electrical and chemical signals to and from different parts of the body. Specifically, the nervous system extracts information from the internal and external environments using sensory receptors. It then usually sends signals encoding this information to the brain, which processes the information to determine an appropriate response. Finally, the brain sends signals to muscles, organs, or glands to bring about the necessary response. The two main divisions of the nervous system are the central nervous system (CNS), consisting of the brain and the spinal cord, and the peripheral nervous system (PNS), which includes all other nervous tissue, such as ganglia and nerves, outside the brain and spinal cord. The CNS and PNS are covered in greater detail in separate sections. In the example above, your eyes detected the skateboarder, the information traveled to your brain, and your brain instructed your body to act to avoid a collision.

The phenomenon of working memory is made all the more complex by the fact that it takes place over time. For example, the experimental results illustrated below show how various areas of the subjects’ brains alter their activity levels as the subjects are presented with various visual stimuli. When the subjects are shown a blurred image, the activity level (represented by the blue bars in the graph) becomes highest in area 1, the visual part of the brain. When the subjects are shown an image of a face, brain activity (black bars) becomes highest in the associative and frontal regions (4, 5, and 6). Lastly, when the subjects are retaining an image of a face in their working memory, brain activity (red bars) is highest in the frontal regions, while the visual areas are scarcely stimulated at all.

considered here is sometimes referred to as organic amnesia,

memory within the confines of the cerebral cortex"

A fascinating research enterprise contributing greatly to our understanding of memory is the case of H.M. (e.g. Henry Molianson)

classical conditioning,

By contrast, learned behavioral adaptations can change moment to moment and, as discussed above, may be transmitted (in some species) to future generations by cultural transmission

Figure 44\PageIndex{4}: Titration of a Weak Polyprotic Acid. Another 10 mL, or a total of 20 mL, of the titrant is added to the weak polyprotic acid to reach the second equivalence point. (CC BY; Heather Yee via LibreTexts)

hese human-made elements are heavier in atomic terms than the naturally occurring elements and are typically generated by smashing atoms of natural elements into one another; they break down, or decay, rapidly into atoms of other elements. As examples of how science can remove some of the mystery from the universe: our understanding of atoms and elements means that no new natural, light elements are theoretically possible. We know of all the light elements that can possibly exist anywhere in the universe, a pretty amazing fact

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Cold north winds are blowing, Heavy falls the snow. Friend, thy hand, if thou art friendly! Forth together let us go. Long, too long, we loiter here: Times are too severe. How the north wind whistles, Driving snow and sleet! Friend, thy hand, if thou art friendly! Let us, thou and I, retreat. Long, too long, we loiter here: Times are too severe. Nothing red, but foxes! Nothing black, but crows! Friend, thy hand, if thou art friendly! Come with me my waggon goes. Long, too long, we loiter here: Times are too severe.

Bearing a load of sorrow and of care; Vulgarly poor am I, and sore bestead, And of my hardships all are unaware.

Long, long the stormwind blew, and wild. He turned to look at me: he smiled; But mockery was there, and scorn. Ah, how my very heart was torn!

The cedar boat is drifting, On currents never still. Sleepless I lie, vexed inly, As with some unknown ill. 'Tis not that wine is wanting, Or leave to roam at will. My heart is no mere mirror That cannot comprehend. Brothers I have, but may not On brothers e'en depend. Tush! when I go complaining 'Tis only to offend. No stone this heart of mine is, That may be turned and rolled; No mat this heart of mine is, To fold or to unfold. Steadfast and strict my life is; Nought 'gainst it can be told. Yet here I sit in sorrow, Scorned by a rabble crew. My troubles have been many, My insults not a few. Calmly I think then, starting, I beat my breast anew. O moon, why now the brighter? O sun, why now dost wane? My heart wears grief as garments Inured to soil and stain. Calmly I think then, starting, Would fly but all in vain.

Note. Although this is one of the shortest and apparently most trivial of the Odes in the Book of Poetry, it is credited by the Chinese editors with as much meaning as the largest. It is regarded, like so many more, as illustrating the extent of the reformation brought about by King Wăn. Not only was the kingdom better ruled, society better regulated, and individuals more self-disciplined and improved in manners, but the reformation affected all things: vegetation flourished, game became most abundant, hunting was attended to at the right seasons, and the benign influence of the King was everywhere felt by the people. The poet thinks it is sufficient to dwell upon these last characteristics. Probably the lines were written after some royal hunt.

In the wild there lies a dead gazelle, With the reed-grass round it wrapt; And a maid who loveth springtide well By a winsome youth is trapped. In the wood thick undergrowth is found, In the wild the dead gazelle,

Starlets dim are yonder peeping, In the East are five, and three. Softly, where our lord is (sleeping), Soon or late by night go we. Some have high, some low degree. Starlets dim are yonder peeping, Pleiades, Orion's band. Softly nightly go we creeping, Quilt and coverlet in hand. Some take high, some lower stand.

True-hearted husband, fain, oh fain Were I to have thee home again. Hearken! now the thunder Is down upon the plain. Hence why must he wander, Nor dare awhile remain? True-hearted husband, fain, oh fain Were I to find thee home again.

She goes to gather water-wort, Beside the streams south of the hills; She goes to gather water-grass Along the swollen roadside rills; Goes now to store her gathered herbs In basket round, in basket square; Goes now to seethe and simmer them In tripod and in cauldron there; Pours out libations of them all Beneath the light within the Hall. And who is she so occupied? Who, but (our lord's) young pious bride?

O to see him once again! O to meet him once again! Stilled were then the swelling sigh. Climbed I yonder up South Hill, Plucked sweet brackens as I went. But my lord I saw not still; Loud was yet my heart's lament. O to see him once again! O to meet him once again! So my heart were well content. Climbed I yonder up South Hill, Now to pluck the royal fern. Yet my lord I saw not still; Still my heart must pine and yearn. O to see him once again! O to meet him once again! So my heart's-ease might return.

And countless cars escort her.

Do a communication self-assessment. What are your strengths as a communicator? What are your weaknesses? What can you do to start improving your communication competence?

What communication concept has appealed to you most so far? How can you see this concept applying to your life?

What aspects of communication do you think are “common sense?” What aspects of communication do you think require more formal instruction and/or study?

What are some examples of unethical communication that you have witnessed?

Do you think we, as a society, have less value for FtF communication than we used to? Why or why not?

In a typical day, what types of CMC do you use?

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