Neurons can be classified depending on their structure, function, or other characteristics

Although they do not participate in the communication between cells in the same fashion that neurons do, some researchers have found evidence that suggests that some glia may participate in information processing activities along with neurons

glial functions include digesting debris from dead neurons, carrying nutritional support from blood vessels to the neurons, and helping to regulate the ionic composition of the extracellular fluid

include motor neurons (see functional classification below), which carry commands from the brain and spinal cord to muscles and glands, and interneurons (see functional classification below), which constitute the majority of neurons.

heir function is to receive messages (excitatory and inhibitory post-synaptic potentials, EPSPs/IPSPs- see the nervous system communication chapter) from other cells and carry them to the cell body

It is the axon that propagates the nerve impulse (also called an action potential), which is communicated to one or more cells. The other processes of the neuron are dendrites, which receive information from other neurons across specialized areas called synapses.

Ongoing research pursues an expanded role that glial cells might play in signaling, but neurons are still considered the basis of this function. Neurons are important, but without glial support they would not be able to perform their function.

It then usually sends signals encoding this information to the brain, which processes the information to determine an appropriate response. Finally, the brain sends signals to muscles, organs, or glands to bring about the necessary response.

Their function is to transmit nerve impulses

human organ system that coordinates all of the body’s voluntary and involuntary actions by transmitting electrical and chemical signals to and from different parts of the body

monitoring conditions in the internal environment and bringing about appropriate changes in them

primarily senses the external environment and controls voluntary activities for which decisions and commands come from the cerebral cortex of the brain

Sensory neurons in the autonomic system detect internal body conditions and send messages to the brain. Motor nerves in the autonomic system function by controlling the contractions of smooth or cardiac muscle or glandular tissue.

controls voluntary activities for which decisions and commands come from the cerebral cortex of the brain.

It serves as a communication relay, going back and forth between the CNS and muscles, organs, and glands throughout the body. Figure 4.5.14.5.1\PageIndex{1} illustrates both the central and peripheral nervous systems, including many representative spinal nerves.

For example, you learned that certain symbols and objects like an apple, a ruler, a calculator, and a notebook are associated with being a student or teacher. You learned new concepts like grades and recess, and you engaged in new practices like doing homework, studying, and taking tests. You also formed new relationships with teachers, administrators, and classmates. As you progressed through your education, your schema adapted to the changing environment.

However, the judgments we place on various patterns and categories are not natural; they are learned and culturally and contextually relative.

Since we expect something to happen, we may be extra tuned in to clues that it is coming.

Because of this tendency, we often have to end up being forced into or accidentally experiencing something new in order to create or discover new interests.

When we don’t think certain messages meet our needs, stimuli that would normally get our attention may be completely lost. Imagine you are in the grocery store and you hear someone say your name. You turn around, only to hear that person say, “Finally! I said your name three times. I thought you forgot who I was!” A few seconds before, when you were focused on figuring out which kind of orange juice to get, you were attending to the various pulp options to the point that you tuned other stimuli out, even something as familiar as the sound of someone calling your name.

without internet 2 billion people live without mobile phones 0.4 billion people live without a digital signal 60% of the world's pop

y high school had access to scholarly databases (example: JSTOR, EBSCO). My high school prepared me for college-level research (example: citing sources, plagiarism, finding & evaluating sources). I had to write research papers in my high school. I had access to books in my native language in high school. I had lots of books at home. My high school had a library and a librarian. My high school had a lot of technology. I could get to a public library in my hometown. I had easy access to the internet growing up. Information privileges identified for college students in text boxes include: If a book or article isn't in my college library, I can request a free copy of it from another library. My college subscribes to citation software (note, this isn't true at CRC). I have access to many databases and journals through my college library. I am able to purchase textbooks for all of my courses. My college has a special collections library. My college library hasn't had major budget cuts. My professors often provide students with the full text to course rea

credible profits experienced by academic publishers. You can see that scholarly publishing is far more profitable than being one of the biggest retailers in the world (Amazon).

Monetary Fund illustrates that

chemical composition

Distillation makes use of differences in volatility, a measure of how easily a substance is converted to a gas at a given temperature

Although most solutions we encounter are liquid, solutions can also be solid.

hus air is a solution of nitrogen, oxygen, water vapor, carbon dioxide, and several other gases; tap water is a solution of small amounts of several substances in water.

If all portions of a material are in the same state, have no visible boundaries, and are uniform throughout, then the material is homogeneous.

Therefore, if we learn more about the host country, we may begin to have an understanding of the different norms and customs in our new environment.

The W shape represents the fluctuation of travelers' emotions when adapting to a new culture, and then when re-adapting to their home culture.

To understand this model, the vertical axis represents satisfaction, or happiness, and the horizontal axis represents time. The first stage, often called the honeymoon stage, happens right at the beginning of the journey.

When we enter a new culture, many of those familiar signs and signals are gone

Those who travel with an open mind and heart, who take the experiences as they come in a more spontaneous way tend to adapt better.

but not everybody experiences culture shock the same way.

Culture shock is first and foremost an emotional response to a change in our culture environment.

Culture shock refers to the anxiety and discomfort we feel when moving from a familiar environment to an unfamiliar one. In our own culture, through time, we have learned the million and one ways how to communicate appropriately with friends, family members, colleagues, and others.

: Table of Acid Ionization Constants

tidal current is a horizontal flow of water that accompanies the rising and falling of the tides. Tidal currents can be strong on shallow continental shelves and coastlines with restricting geography (such as in bays, inlets, narrow straits, lagoons, and estuaries). Tidal currents are relatively weak in the open ocean.

of Salts

It is through our study of our hominin ancestors and relatives that we are exposed to a world of “might have beens”--of other paths not taken by our species, of other ways of being human. But in order to better understand these different evolutionary trajectories, we must first define the terms we are using. If an imaginary line were drawn between ourselves and our closest relatives, the great apes, bipedalism (habitually walking upright on two feet) is where that line would be drawn. Hominin, then, means everyone on “our” side of that line defined by bipedalism.

Error management theory (EMT) deals with the evolution of how we think, make decisions, and evaluate uncertain situations—that is, situations where there's no clear answer how we should behave (Haselton & Buss, 2000; Haselton, Nettle, & Andrews, 2005). Consider, for example, walking through the woods at dusk. You hear a rustle in the leaves on the path in front of you. It could be a snake. Or, it could just be the wind blowing the leaves. Because you can't really tell why the leaves rustled, it’s an uncertain situation.

Evolutionary psychology is fundamentally an interactionist framework, or a theory that takes into account multiple factors when determining the outcome. For example, jealousy, like a callus, doesn’t simply pop up out of nowhere. There is an “interaction” between the environmental trigger (e.g., the flirting; the repeated rubbing of the skin) and the initial response (e.g., evaluation of the flirter’s threat; the forming of new skin cells) to produce the outcome.

Evolution simply means change over time. Many think of evolution as the development of traits and behaviors that allow us to survive this “dog-eat-dog” world, like strong leg muscles to run fast, or fists to punch and defend ourselves. However, physical survival is only important if it eventually contributes to successful reproduction. That is, even if you live to be a 100-year-old, if you fail to mate and produce children, your genes will die with your body. Thus, reproductive success, not survival success, is the engine of evolution by natural selection.

Each chromosome is made up of a single DNA molecule coiled around histone proteins. Research dating back to the 1800s shows that every living creature has a specific set of chromosomes in the nucleus of each of its cells.

Since the child is being raised by parents who are genetically different from his or her biological parents, the influence of the environment shows in how similar the child is to his or her adoptive parents or adoptive siblings vs. how similar the child is to his or her biological parents and siblings.

Common abnormalities include Down syndrome (caused by an extra chromosome #21), Klinefelter syndrome (caused by an extra X chromosome), and Turner syndrome (caused by a missing X chromosome). Genetic counseling is available for families in order to determine if any abnormalities exist that may be passed along to offspring

it is shaped like a double helix, made of sequences of nucleic acids attached to a sugar phosphate backbone. Genes are subsections of DNA molecules linked together that encode a particular characteristic.

Psychology is the scientific study of mental processes and behavior. These processes are, of course, all functions of a biological organ, the brain. Like other organs, the brain and its operations have evolutionary origins. Understanding evolution can give us fresh insights about our psychology and the psychology of other species.  The characteristics of organisms, including mental and behavioral traits, perform biological functions that contribute to survival and reproduction.

When looking at nature, it is important to ask why things in nature have the properties that they do.  This is especially important when thinking about organisms.  Why do organisms possess the traits that they do?  Why do birds have feathers?

Why do humans and other animals move, why do they have particular mental capabilities and not others, and what laws or principles govern the organization of behavior and mental processes?

kin selection) favors our altruistic side including prosocial behaviors such as caring, giving, sharing, and cooperation

individual selection) favors the self-interested side of human nature

The evolved behavioral and mental traits of an organism are its psychological adaptations

The heritable features which organisms use to solve problems of survival and reproduction are called adaptations.

sexual selection--selection based on the "attractiveness" of potential sexual partners.

the environment presents challenges to survival such as disease, predators, and insufficient supplies of resources such as energy (in the form of sunlight for plants, or food for animals), territory, and water.

environmental selection--selection by the environment of which genetic variants in a population will survive long enough to have a chance to reproduce

"Fit" in this context does not mean the healthiest or the strongest, rather it is a reference to the ability to pass one's genes on to the next generation.

When you become aware of how communication functions, you can think more deliberately through your communication encounters, which can help you better prepare for future communication and learn from your previous communication.

Of the forms of communication, intrapersonal communication has received the least amount of formal study. It is rare to find courses devoted to the topic, and it is generally separated from the remaining four types of communication.

Intrapersonal communication also helps build and maintain our self-concept. We form an understanding of who we are based on how other people communicate with us and how we process that communication intrapersonally.

While some focused on the quality of ideas, arguments, and organization, others focused on coaching the performance and delivery aspects of public speaking (Keith, 2008). Instruction in the latter stressed the importance of “oratory” or “elocution,” and this interest in reading and speaking aloud is sustained today in theatre and performance studies and also in oral interpretation classes, which are still taught in many communication departments.

“two motives for learning to speak. Increasing one’s chance to succeed and increasing one’s power to serve

Endocrine glands in the brain include the pituitary gland (located at the base of the brain), the hypothalamus (immediately above the pituitary gland), and the pineal gland (near the center of the brain). The pituitary gland is controlled by the hypothalamus, to which it is connected by a thin stalk (the infundibulum).

eural messages can travel only to destinations along existing nerve tracts. Hormonal communication, on the other hand, is like traveling in a car. You can drive to many more destinations than train travel allows because there are many more roads than railroad tracks. Similarly, hormonal messages can travel anywhere in the body via the circulatory system; any cell receiving blood is potentially able to receive a hormonal message.

the fastest nerve impulses travel at speeds greater than 100 meters per second!

hippocampus is essential for forming memories and storing them long-term and is located deep in the temporal lobe. Lastly, the amygdala (also called the amygdaloid body, colored blue in the figure) is connected to the anterior end of the hippocampus and is involved in multiple aspects of emotion, including encoding memories related to highly emotional states.

The brainstem, the spinal cord, and the PNS all send information to the cerebrum through the diencephalon, and output from the cerebrum then passes back through the diencephalon.

with executive functions such as attention, self-control, planning, problem-solving, reasoning, abstract thought, language, and personality. Another important function of the frontal lobes is movement- as mentioned above, the precentral gyrus (indicated on Figure 4.4.64.4.6\PageIndex{6}) contains the primary motor cortex.

It controls conscious, intellectual functions, such as reasoning, language, memory, sight, touch, and hearing.

The term differentiation also encompasses the formation of different types of neurons (Stiles & Jernigan, 2010), or gaining the features that distinguish one type of neuron from another.

the forebrain (including the cerebrum, thalamus, hypothalamus, and limbic system structures), the midbrain, and the hindbrain (including the medulla, pons, and cerebellum)

a sperm cell and an egg cell fuse to become a fertilized egg.

The CNS includes the brain and spinal cord, and the PNS consists of all other nervous tissue in the body. The nerves of the PNS connect the CNS to the rest of the body. The PNS is further divided into the autonomic and somatic nervous systems. The somatic nervous system (SNS) is responsible for activities that are under voluntary control and awareness. The autonomic nervous system (ANS) controls involuntary activities.

sympathetic nervous system controls the "fight-or-flight" response during emergencies, and the parasympathetic nervous system controls the routine “housekeeping” functions of the body

Cephalic/Caudal–

Frontal (or coronal) plane—A vertical cut that separates the front from the back of the individual/structure. Transverse (or horizontal) plane—A horizontal cut that separates the top from the bottom of the individual/structure. (May also be called cross-sections.) Sagittal plane—A vertical cut that separates the left half from the right half of the individual/structure.

r

R

V

tot

one force applied at the beginning on the trajectory,

a form of motion where an object moves in parabolic path

pH

When you deliver an informative speech, your primary purpose is to give your audience information that they did not already know, or to teach them more about a topic with which they are already familiar.

Steps are being taken to reduce the burning of wood.

emissions of sulfur dioxide totaled 24.1 million tons in the United States

Biomass or waste plant parts may also be used as a source of fuel. In some areas solid waste incinerators are also used as a source of heat.

we give our conflict partner reasons to support our request or suggestion, meaning there is more information exchange,

Being able to manage conflict situations can make life more pleasant rather than letting a situation stagnate or escalate.

Just as large groups of people create cultures through shared symbols (language), values, and rituals, people in relationships also create cultures at a smaller level

We have different needs that are met through our various relationships.

grew

symmetric

Listenable messages are orally delivered messages that are tailored to be comprehended by a listener

What are my goals for listening to this message?”

Active listening

Aggressive listening is a bad listening practice in which people pay attention to a speaker in order to attack something they say.

Eavesdropping

After all, we can move something to our long-term memory by repetition and then later recall it without ever having understood it.

Listening is a process and as such doesn’t have a defined start and finish.

short-term memory

Action-oriented listeners

Empathetic listening

Getting integrated: Listening is a learned process and skill that we can improve on with concerted effort. Improving our listening skills can benefit us in academic, professional, personal, and civic contexts.

Empathetic listening is the most challenging form of listening and occurs when we try to understand or experience what a speaker is thinking or feeling. Empathetic listening is distinct from sympathetic listening. While the word empathy means to “feel into” or “feel with” another person, sympathy means to “feel for” someone.

to focus on messages sent by other people or noises coming from our surroundings; to better our understanding of other people’s communication; to critically evaluate other people’s messages; to monitor nonverbal signals; to indicate that we are interested or paying attention; to empathize with others and show we care for them (relational maintenance); and to engage in negotiation, dialogue, or other exchanges that result in shared understanding of or agreement on an issue.

The most serious consequences of prenatal drug or alcohol exposure involve newborn addiction and fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS). Fetal alcohol syndrome affects both physical and mental development, damaging neurons within the brain and often leading to cognitive impairment and below-average weight.

the mind is a collection or bundle of information processing "organs" or "modules" each of which has evolved, over our evolutionary history as a species, to process particular kinds of information from the environment in quite specific ways to help us to survive and reproduce our genes.

Brain development is more rapid during this critical or sensitive period than at any other, with more than 700 neural connections created each second. Herein, complex gene –environment interactions (or genotype–environment interactions, G×E) serve to increase the number of possible contacts between neurons, as they hone their adult synaptic properties and excitability.

strictly increasing function

People may not understand your words, but they will certainly interpret your nonverbal communication according to their accepted norms. Notice the word their. It is their perceptions that will count when you are trying to communicate, and it’s important to understand that those perceptions will be based on the teachings and experiences of their culture—not yours.

people have expectations about the appropriateness of nonverbal behavior, which is learned and culturally driven.

Different perceptions of time can vary dramatically when it comes to arranging meetings. Some Mexican American friends may invite you to a barbecue at 8 p.m., but when you arrive you are the first guest, because it is understood that the gathering actually doesn’t start until well after 9 p.m.

It's not just how we drive that may be different, but as well what it is we use our cars for.

He and his brother had placed bombs near the finish line of the Boston Marathon,

2015, the "Boston bomber", Dzhokhar Tsarnaev, was sentenced to death. He and his brother had placed bombs near the finish line of the Boston Marathon, resulting in multiple deaths and injuries. At the trial, his involvement in setting the bombs was not at issue; he admitted his guilt. The question was if he would be sentenced to life in prison or to death.

“body language”

It is likely that most individuals would be surprised to learn how important nonverbal behavior is in conveying messages during conversations.

One of the most common forms of gestures involve greetings and departures, which have rituals that are largely nonverbal, such as shaking hands or waving. These tend to vary across cultures. In Japan, for example, it is common to bow when greeting someone, with the nature of the bow (how deep and how long) being determined by the nature of the occasion and social connection of the persons involved.

The caution in using gestures extends to those which may be widespread in a culture,

Any interference in the communication process is considered noise.

The components of the communication process are

1

Identify covalent and ionic compounds.

selenium monoxide

sulfur hexafluoride

dioxygen difluoride

nitrogen dioxide

PCl3

F2

a(OH)

N2O

Na3PO4Na3PO4\ce{Na_3PO_4}

Na2O

1-heptyne

2-hexene

n-octane

disulfur decafluoride

silicon tetrachloride

OF2

N2O5

IF7

15.2.1c

KMT

alkane

Communicating and Meeting Personal Needs

Meeting Personal Needs

Attitude

Intention

Attention

40 to 50% of all table-service restaurant customers arrive in pairs 30% of the customers come alone or in parties of 3 20% of the customers arrive in groups of 4 or more

Quick Service

A parking lot should also convey a sense of safety, keeping criminals out as it draws customers in.

Theories

Gage became irritable, irreverent, rude and profane, aspects that were not part of his way of being

company's most capable employee, with a well-balanced mind and a sense of leadership

used to look at brain activity or communication in a living patient

pictures of the brain. An MRI does not use Xrays

used to locate brain tumors, injury, or atrophy. However, the CT scan uses Xrays to provide an image of the brain

overall electrical activity of the brain

Phineas Gage and invention of methods such as the electroencephalogram (EEG) and computed tomography (CT or CAT) scans

Donald Hebb wrote his influential book, The Organization of Behavior, where he introduced the first comprehensive theory on how the brain might create and control complex psychological functioning

Knight Dunlap used the term "psychobiology" to explain the role of biology in behavior.

Like many early psychologists, James had extensive training in physiology

specific psychological and behavioral processes are localized to specific regions and networks of the brain

biological psychology, behavioral neuroscience, physiological psychology, neuropsychology, and psychobiology

the study of biological mechanisms of behavior and mental processes

We now know that damage to a small area less than the size of a quarter at the very base of your brain results in disruption of feeding and regulation of body weight.  Damage to another area of the brain located near your temples disrupts your ability to form new memories for facts and events, while leaving your ability to learn new motor tasks (such as skating or riding a bike) completely unaffected.  Damage to another brain area causes face blindness, or prosopagnosia, a disorder in which the afflicted individual can still see normally except that they cannot recognize familiar faces, even the faces of close family members or even their own face in a photograph.

(−1)n−1n3n−2∑n=1∞(−1)n−1n3n−2\sum_{n=1}^\infty (-1)^{n-1}{n\over 3n-2}

extensive or intensive.

Structural imaging techniques are useful in many situations such as locating tumors, sites of physical brain damage, or finding size differences between the structures of the brain between various groups. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), for example, is one such technique that is commonly used to study the brain and to diagnosis knee and shoulder injuries. Structural imaging techniques allow us to look inside the brain (or body) without having to go inside.

Functional imaging techniques allow researchers to learn about the brain activity during various tasks by creating images based on the electrical activity or the absorption of various substances that occurs while a subject is engaging in a task.

Alkalis were extracted from ashes,

refinement

So, it is extremely difficult to determine what exactly each cell does through single cell recordings. Recording from one area ignores what is happening everywhere else in the brain.

This magnetic field travels through the skull and scalp and affects neurons near the surface of the brain. When the magnetic field is rapidly turned on and off, a current is induced in the neurons, leading to depolarization or hyperpolarization, depending on the number of magnetic field pulses. Single- or paired-pulse TMS depolarizes site-specific neurons in the cortex, causing them to fire.

This allows researchers to construct a three-dimensional image of the areas of the brain that have the highest metabolic needs, typically those that are most active.

Electroencephalography (EEG) is one technique for studying brain activity.

Computed (or computerized) tomography (CT) is a noninvasive imaging technique that uses computers to analyze several cross-sectional X-rays in order to reveal small details about structures in the body.

In 1895, Röntgen made the first durable record of the internal parts of a living human: an “X-ray” image (as it came to be called) of his wife’s hand. Scientists around the world quickly began their own experiments with X-rays, and by 1900, X-rays were widely used to detect a variety of injuries and diseases.

visual aids

information overload

Persuasive speaking

Deductive reasoning

cognitive dissonance

des

allosterically

phosphorylation

you’ll have to train yourself to do it well.

What are the advantages and disadvantages of starting with a quote? What about the advantages and disadvantages of starting with a quote from the President? How would other readers respond to this technique? Would certain readers (say Democrats or liberals) appreciate an essay that started with a quote from President Obama better than other readers (say Republicans or conservatives)? What would be the advantages and disadvantages of starting with a quote from a less divisive person? What about starting with a quote from someone more divisive?

These are all reasonable questions to ask.

The goal is to carefully consider the choices the author made and the techniques that he or she used, and then decide whether you want to make those same choices or use those same techniques in your own writing. Author and professor Wendy Bishop explains how her reading process changed when she began to read like a writer:

Say you’re reading an essay in class that begins with a short quote

The goal as you read like a writer is to locate what you believe are the most important writerly choices

trying to understand how the piece of writing was put together

Instead of reading for content or to better understand the ideas in the writing

The idea is to carefully examine the things you read, looking at the writerly techniques in the text in order to decide if you might want to adopt similar (or the same) techniques in your writing