Us and our friends
Our friends and we
10,000 Matching Annotations
- Mar 2025
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human.libretexts.org human.libretexts.org
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I
me
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She and him
he and she
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me
I
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stats.libretexts.org stats.libretexts.org
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chem.libretexts.org chem.libretexts.org
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107o
The internal angle of a regular pentagon is 108 degrees, not “about 107”.
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socialsci.libretexts.org socialsci.libretexts.org
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group of women, including prominent Black lesbians, who wrote a collective statement demonstrating their political analysis and commitment to addressing interlocking structures of discrimination, including sexism, heterosexism, and racism
Key Focus: A collective of Black women, including Black lesbians, committed to addressing interlocking systems of oppression like sexism, racism, and heterosexism.
Follow-up Explanation: The collective’s statement remains one of the most pivotal articulations of intersectionality. It’s a powerful reminder of how overlapping oppressions require interconnected approaches to advocacy and justice.
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tradition of Black women using intellectual, social, cultural, and political strategies to end violence and exploitation.
Key Focus: A tradition of using social, cultural, and political strategies to combat violence and exploitation against Black women.
Follow-up Explanation: Black Feminism recognizes the unique intersections of race, gender, and class. It highlights the contributions of Black women in driving social change while addressing systemic inequalities that disproportionately affect them.
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activists and organizations around the world that advocate against police brutality and killing of Black people. The movement has become a centerpiece in contemporary struggles for rights, equity, justice, and recognition.
Key Focus: A global movement advocating against police brutality and systemic violence targeting Black people.
Follow-up Explanation: BLM isn’t just a hashtag—it’s an ongoing fight for justice, equity, and recognition. From protests to policy advocacy, the movement seeks to address and dismantle systemic violence against Black individuals and communities.
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coined by sociologist Patricia Hill Collins that emphasizes the constellation of stereotypes that work to control and subordinate Black women in public society, including the Mammy, the Matriarch, and the Welfare Queen.
Key Focus: Stereotypes outlined by Patricia Hill Collins, such as the Mammy, Matriarch, and Welfare Queen, that work to subordinate Black women.
Follow-up Explanation: These stereotypes don’t just limit how Black women are perceived—they actively shape societal structures that oppress them. Recognizing these images is key to dismantling them and advocating for equitable treatment and representation.
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achieving equity in public institutions, companies, and other organizations that experienced considerable resistance. Affirmative action includes practices meant to eliminate historical patterns of discrimination and to provide corrective adjustments that recognize the barriers faced by historically underrepresented groups.
Key Focus: Policies aimed at equity by addressing historical discrimination and creating corrective pathways for underrepresented groups.
Follow-up Explanation: While controversial, affirmative action focuses on leveling the playing field, especially in education and employment. The goal isn’t favoritism—it’s about recognizing systemic barriers that continue to impact marginalized communities.
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differs greatly compared to other groups or others within a group
Key Focus: Unequal representation across groups or within subgroups.
Follow-up Explanation: Disproportionality shows up in systems like education or criminal justice, where certain groups face harsher punishments or fewer opportunities compared to others. Think of it as highlighting inequity by numbers—quantifying unfairness to make systemic issues undeniable.
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Michelle Alexander that demonstrates the historical continuity between the systems of slavery, Jim Crow segregation, and mass incarceration today.
Key Focus: A book by Michelle Alexander exploring connections between historical systems of oppression—slavery, Jim Crow laws, and today’s mass incarceration.
Follow-up Explanation: The New Jim Crow demonstrates how societal systems evolve while perpetuating the same racial inequalities. It makes the case for viewing mass incarceration as a continuation of oppressive practices under new names.
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thriving Black-owned businesses and families prior to being targeted by white supremacists in 1921
Key Focus: The Greenwood District of Tulsa, Oklahoma, a thriving Black community destroyed in the 1921 massacre by white supremacists.
Follow-up Explanation: Black Wall Street symbolized the success and resilience of Black entrepreneurship. Its destruction shows the lengths to which systemic racism and violence worked to erase Black progress. Hundreds were killed or went missing, and the massacre stands as one of the darkest chapters in U.S. history.
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abilities to own property, conduct business, lease land, and move freely through public spaces. These regulations worked to keep separate the established white society from the lives of Black people.
Key Focus: Laws that restricted Black individuals’ ability to own property, conduct business, lease land, and move freely.
Follow-up Explanation: The Black Codes weren’t just laws—they were tools of oppression designed to entrench segregation and limit Black autonomy post-slavery. These codes paved the way for Jim Crow laws, which institutionalized racial inequality on an even broader scale.
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recognized and investigated the 400th anniversary of racialized slavery in the United States. The project has become the target of conservative attempts to censor discussions of race, history, slavery, and racial disparities today.
Key Focus: A journalistic and historical project by Nikole Hannah-Jones marking the 400th anniversary of racialized slavery in the United States.
Follow-up Explanation: The 1619 Project doesn’t just look backward—it’s about connecting the dots between the legacy of slavery and current racial disparities. It’s become a lightning rod in debates about how history should be taught, highlighting the intersections between education, politics, and social justice.
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were fleeing to places where slavery was not legal so they could begin life anew.
Key Focus: A network of anti-slavery activists who provided safe routes and hiding spaces for self-emancipated individuals fleeing slavery. Follow-up Explanation: Think of it as an intricate web of resistance against slavery, involving courageous abolitionists and freed individuals. The routes often led to free regions like Canada, Mexico, and even Florida during Spanish control. The bravery of those who organized and participated in the Underground Railroad is a testament to human resilience and solidarity.](http://insert-your-link-here.com)
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segregation created an explicitly tiered version of citizenship. The Courts upheld this doctrine through the notion of “separate but equal,” which was codified in the 1896 decision in the Plessy v. Ferguson case. The term "Jim Crow" refers to minstrel shows where white actors would wear Blackface and portray negative stereotypes of Black men.
An era of legally enforced racial segregation following Reconstruction, upheld by the doctrine of “separate but equal” established in Plessy v. Ferguson (1896).
Follow-up insights: Beyond segregation laws, the Jim Crow Era shows how systemic racism was normalized in daily life—from schools and housing to transportation and voting. It’s essential to connect this era to the Civil Rights Movement, which sought to dismantle these structures.
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upport recently freed communities of Black people in the southern United States
Established after the Civil War, this agency provided food, education, and legal aid to freed Black individuals and communities.
Follow-up insights: Think of it as a lifeline during Reconstruction. While it had successes in areas like education, opposition and underfunding limited its long-term impact. It highlights both progress and the resistance to equality during this period.
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means the way that Black people have to see themselves through the lens of a racist society, in addition to an authentic self-perception and identity.
Legally sanctioned segregation enforced through laws, as seen in Jim Crow policies, which were upheld by cases like Plessy v. Ferguson in 1896.
Follow-up insights: The focus here should be on the structural, legalized nature of oppression. Pair it with examples of its undoing through the Civil Rights Movement to see the contrast between the law as a tool for injustice versus justice.
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anctioned discrimination that is supported by existing laws and political belief systems. De jure discrimination is the opposite of de facto discrimination
Legally sanctioned segregation enforced through laws, as seen in Jim Crow policies, which were upheld by cases like Plessy v. Ferguson in 1896.
Follow-up insights: The focus here should be on the structural, legalized nature of oppression. Pair it with examples of its undoing through the Civil Rights Movement to see the contrast between the law as a tool for injustice versus justice.
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emphasizes pride in being Black, economic self-sufficiency, and Black separatism.
It’s all about pride, separatism, and economic independence—essentially, Black communities advocating for their own space and systems without external interference. This overlaps with Black Power, but the emphasis on separatism is a key differentiator.
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emphasizes building Black-serving institutions and leaders.
This term screams boldness. Stokely Carmichael’s 1966 speech lit the fire for the Black Power Movement, emphasizing self-reliance and the creation of Black-serving institutions. Focus on the idea of empowering Black leaders and communities.
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emphasized pride, empowerment, and economic prosperity for Black communities.
Marcus Garvey’s philosophy was all about pride, empowerment, and economic self-sufficiency for Black communities. Think of it as an early “economic independence” movement.
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This meant that slave-owning states would have increased representation based on the number of enslaved people in their state despite those people not being represented in elections.
The 1787 decision at the U.S. Constitutional Convention symbolized the harsh political reality of enslaved Black individuals—counted as 3/5ths of a free white person for determining state representation. While it bolstered political power for slave-holding states, it denied the enslaved any rights or voice in shaping their future.
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Transatlantic Triangular Trade: The economic system that supported the colonization of the United States and the Americas by European countries. This arrangement exploited the people and natural resources of West Africa and the eastern segments of North, Central, and South America for the financial benefit and production of industrialization in Europe and European colonies. Chattel Slavery: The specific form of slavery in which the children of enslaved people are automatically considered to be slaves themselves. This system contributed to the creation of racial categories in colonial America.
By 1700, approximately 50,000 African people were enslaved annually, with a devastating total of 12 million trafficked to the Western Hemisphere during the Transatlantic Triangular Trade. Chattel slavery dehumanized individuals as property, exploiting their labor and severing familial, cultural, and spiritual ties for economic gains that fueled industrialization in Europe and its colonies.
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led by African Americans in the U.S. between the 1940s and 1970s that advocated for equality in education, employment, housing, voting, and other major civil rights areas.
From the 1940s to the 1950s, Black communities mobilized against Jim Crow laws and pervasive segregation in public spaces, schools, and housing. This movement marked a turning point in dismantling institutionalized discrimination, laying the foundation for further equality-focused activism, such as the Voting Rights Act and Civil Rights Act of the 1960s.
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experience of people's heritage. This includes African people, African immigrants, and communities with origins on the African continent that have been enslaved, trafficked, and settled
Panafricanism became a cornerstone for understanding Blackness and Black identity across global African communities. It unifies the experiences of those with African heritage while fostering collective pride and resistance against colonial and racial oppression. This framework continues to inform cultural and intellectual solidarity movements.
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Freedmen's Bureau and affirmative action as efforts
The Freedmen’s Bureau aimed to provide basic aid (e.g., education, food, legal support) to freed Black Americans after the Civil War but faced resistance and was eventually dismantled. Affirmative Action, introduced in the 20th century, sought to rectify historical discrimination by prioritizing equity in education and employment. Both efforts aimed to address injustice but struggled with opposition and limited implementation.
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struggles of Black women show other dimensions of Black experiences?
Black women, often at the intersections of racism and sexism, have shown resilience in advocating for their communities. Movements like Black Feminism highlight the double burden carried by Black women while emphasizing their leadership in social movements (e.g., the Combahee River Collective). These experiences reveal unique challenges and contributions beyond broader racial struggles.
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significant in the history of Black progress?
The Civil Rights Movement of the 1940s–1970s dismantled de jure segregation through key legislation like the Civil Rights Act and the Voting Rights Act. This era advanced equality in education, employment, and voting, while empowering Black leaders like Martin Luther King Jr. and Malcolm X to challenge societal norms.
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Black Power, Black Nationalism, Black Wall Street, Black Lives Matter, and Black Feminism contribute to uplifting the Black community and also for sub-identities
Ideologies like Black Power and Black Nationalism emphasized self-determination, pride, and empowerment. The legacy of Black Wall Street demonstrated economic independence and success in the face of systemic racism. Contemporary efforts like Black Lives Matter fight for justice and equality, while Black Feminism highlights the importance of intersectionality by advocating for marginalized sub-identities within the Black community.
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structural inequality, inequality through policies and laws within government, health, schooling, media, etc. subordinated Black Americans.
Black Americans have been subordinated through laws like the Black Codes and Jim Crow Era policies, which institutionalized racial segregation and disenfranchisement. Structural inequalities in health, education, and media continue today, as Black communities face discrimination in access to care, representation, and funding. These systems perpetuate cycles of poverty and limited opportunity.
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experience of slavery.
Slavery was defined by the brutal exploitation of African people through systems like the Transatlantic Triangular Trade and chattel slavery. Enslaved individuals endured forced labor, family separation, physical violence, and cultural erasure while still finding ways to resist and survive. The stories of leaders like Harriet Tubman show the resilience and bravery that defined this period.
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forms of resistance from the Black community whether during slavery, Reconstruction, contemporary times, etc.
Resistance has taken many forms, from active rebellion during slavery (e.g., Nat Turner's revolt, the Underground Railroad led by Harriet Tubman) to cultural preservation through maintaining traditions, storytelling, and spirituality. During Reconstruction, organizations like the Freedmen’s Bureau sought to rebuild and empower Black communities despite systemic pushback. In contemporary times, movements like Black Lives Matter embody ongoing resistance, challenging police brutality and systemic oppression.
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solidarity with Black leaders advocating for change and finding ways to contribute directly to a more just and equitable society in our own communities and spaces.
The conclusion’s actionable takeaway emphasizes the importance of standing with Black leaders and contributing to equity. Annotate this as a call to connect learning to community engagement and activism.
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gender roles have historically structured the assumptions about who can lead in what ways when it comes to social movement organizing. Religious institutions have long played an important role in Black communities, ranging from social services and economic prosperity to political organizing and community development.
These insights show how societal structures have historically influenced leadership and organizing. They bridge historical and contemporary movements, which makes them valuable for discussing social dynamics.
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intersectionality, and the significance of multiple interlocking systems
Terms like class, gender, sexuality, religion, and spirituality highlight how identity factors overlap to create unique experiences of oppression.
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agency and group affirmation.
These ideas underscore the importance of self-determination and the collective pride of Black communities. They should be annotated as critical elements when discussing contributions, resilience, and empowerment.
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core theories and ideas
The highlighted terms like Panafricanism, Black Power, Black Nationalism, discrimination, and double consciousness are foundational to Black Studies. These concepts explore different aspects of Black identity, history, and systemic oppression. They are crucial to include in annotations as they can anchor your responses for questions related to theoretical frameworks or historical movements.
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liberation struggles
This phrase emphasizes the activist roots of Black Studies, tying academic concepts to real-world resistance and empowerment.
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geo.libretexts.org geo.libretexts.org
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When the wave touches the bottom, friction causes the wave to slow down. As one wave slows down, the one behind it catches up to it, thus decreasing the wavelength.
It is still just crazy to me how waves reach the ocean floor. It makes sense in retrospect-- but just the idea of it is so impressive how it works as a cycle to me. I wonder if there are other aspects of earth that have that same dynamic(small noticeable observation on the surface but huge overall impact)?
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socialsci.libretexts.org socialsci.libretexts.org
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socialsci.libretexts.org socialsci.libretexts.org
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Contemporary forms of patriarchy in American and European contexts are linked to the European development of capitalism in the 1600s
Capitalism. Who would’ve thought
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chem.libretexts.org chem.libretexts.org
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To help explain why these phenomena proceed spontaneously in only one direction requires an additional state function called entropy (S), a thermodynamic property of all substances that is proportional to their degree of "disorder".
In the second law of thermodynamics, how much disorder can there be infinite or a set amount?
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Now consider the same process in reverse. Suppose that a hot frying pan in a sink of cold water were to become hotter while the water became cooler. As long as the same amount of thermal energy was gained by the frying pan and lost by the water, the first law of thermodynamics would be satisfied
Would this mean that thermal energy is equal?
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chem.libretexts.org chem.libretexts.org
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A crucial point to realize about fossil fuels is that the energy we release by burning them came originally from the sun. The plants from which the fuels were derived grew as a result of photosynthesis, the combination of carbon dioxide and water under the influence of sunlight to form organic compounds whose empirical formula is approximately
With that being said isn't photosynthesis, one of the reasons for climate change aside from fossil fuels?
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chem.libretexts.org chem.libretexts.org
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The second law of thermodynamics says in effect, that the extent to which any natural process can occur is limited by the dilution of thermal energy (increase in entropy)
How far can disorder go could it be an infinite amount?
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human.libretexts.org human.libretexts.org
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appropriate communication, need to ignore irrelevant inexactness
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AMBIGUITY, VAUGENESS, OVERGENERALIZATION, PSEUDOPRECISION, IMPROPER OPERATIONALIZATION = sources of imprecision & potential obstacles to communication
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vaugeness, almost never enitrely eliminated from statements -often is helpful (not getting side-tracked into removing)
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EXCESSIVE VAUGUENESS + AMBIGUITY + OVERGENERALIZATION SHOULD BE ELIMINATED.
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vague v. ambiguity NOT the same
- ex) purple is vague, not amb since there is no small # of distinct interpretations
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w/ vagueness, uncertain interpretation form a continiuum
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to stay on track: logical reasoner must be sensitive to inadequate precision occuring in sematic disagreements -some due to equivocation or faulty operationalization
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log. reasoner also must be aware of effects on communication due to context, background, knowledge, & difference betw/ universal/non-universal generalization
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clear & precise definitions can aid communication
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definitions used to inform people of words meanings also to make jokes, remove vagueness, & ambiguity + to push a political agenda -ostensive, lexical, stipulative, operational, & by example
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helpful definitions difficult to create esp. operational ones
- also be faulty since too broad, narrow, vague, inappropriate for audience, misleading (grammatical category/connotation), circular, or inconsitent
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geo.libretexts.org geo.libretexts.org
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Waves in the Southern Ocean are generally fairly large (the red areas in Figure 10.2.210.2.2\PageIndex{2}) because of the strong winds and the lack of landmasses, which provide the winds with a very long fetch, allowing them to blow unimpeded over the ocean for very long distances.
I wonder how the concept of fetch helps explain why the Southern Ocean experiences some of the largest waves on Earth, even without nearby storms?
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chem.libretexts.org chem.libretexts.org
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ocesses have a natural tendency to occur in one direction under a given set of conditions. Water will naturally flow downhill, but uphill flow requires outside intervention such as the use of a pump. A spontaneous process is one that occurs naturally under certain conditions. A nonspontaneous process, on the other hand, will not take place unless it is “driven” by the continual input of energy from an external source. A process that is spontaneous in one direction under a particular set of conditions is nonspontaneous in the reverse direction
If a process is spontaneous in one direction, why is non spontaneous in the reverse direction? Is the process slowing down or stopping in the reverse direction?
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human.libretexts.org human.libretexts.org
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If a word, phrase, or sentence is too imprecise (for the needs of the audience) because it has two or more distinct interpretations, it is ambiguous.
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chem.libretexts.org chem.libretexts.org
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They don't do it all at once, but according to a sort of clock: a certain fraction of the nuclei will decay in a certain period of time.
Like how popcorn pops. They don't pop all at the same time, but you know that after two minutes, they will all pop.
Though, popcorn is classical randomness (different masses, compositions.) Nuclear decay is due to quantum randomness.
Annotators
URL
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human.libretexts.org human.libretexts.org
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g.
I enjoy that almost everyone can agree that music can make or break something but it is definitionally something that that is recognizable.
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I never knew about sound mixing, till know and realizes how much of difference it can make for a movie. it's also interesting to watch the example as it furthers our understanding.
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y
I think my favorite part about this is how they get so creative with the tools around them. I would have never thought of the monster sounds were created by produce.
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human.libretexts.org human.libretexts.org
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:
By reading this i can safely say I have a newfound respect for actors. especially with all the told setbacks
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end.
this sounds absolute awful and confusing I used to do band and before we went on stage we would only practice bits and pieces out of order so I could never imagine acting a part like in bits and pieces.
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r but embodies a character’s emotional truth
I never thought that so much history when it came to acting it's quite interesting to see it evolve form what it was to what we have now.
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I like how at the end they just narrowed down the schools to their method of teaching. and how at the end they both have the same. I would just like to know which one had more successfully students.
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bio.libretexts.org bio.libretexts.org
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Turbellaria, Monogenea, Trematoda, and Cestoda
4 kelas platyhelminthes
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socialsci.libretexts.org socialsci.libretexts.org
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carry forward strong traditions of resilience and well-being.
Resilience rooted in cultural traditions and community well-being.
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ot only shape individual identity, but also the communities, cultures, languages, and traditions that we practice.
Mixed-race identity emphasizing cultural pride and diverse heritages.
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to unify Chicanx and Mexican American student organizations
Serves as a platform for student leadership and advocacy
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protest against the educational inequality
Demonstrates student activism and systemic resistance
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committed to advancing the economic condition, educational attainment, political influence, housing, health and civil rights of Latinxs through community-based programs
First national Latinx civil rights organization
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Indigenous ways of health and healing
Focus on holistic care, blending spiritual and physical practices
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self-identity category used by people, unlike Hispanic or Latinx which emerged from western institution
Chicanx as self-identity focuses on Indigenous roots and resists labels imposed by Western institutions.
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Why does it matter that people see others like them represented? How does this representation affect communities as a whole?
Seeing figures like Sonia Sotomayor in positions of influence inspires individuals within underrepresented groups, fostering aspiration and empowerment. This representation creates “possibility models” that show marginalized communities they can overcome systemic barriers, ultimately strengthening solidarity and pride.
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Why are students uniquely situated to advocate for their communities?
Students bring energy, innovation, and proximity to challenges within educational and community systems. For example, the East L.A. Blowouts illustrated how student-led protests raised awareness of systemic inequities. By utilizing their platforms and academic access, students can challenge authority while fostering change, as seen in movements like M.E.Ch.A. and contemporary activism efforts.
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How do stories about where we come from shape our sense of self? How do these perspectives show a different understanding of the relationship between people and the land?
Stories about origins, whether framed through Indigenous perspectives or Western views, deeply influence identity by shaping relationships with ancestry and land. Indigenous narratives emphasize a timeless connection to the land, fostering resilience and belonging. This contrasts with migration hypotheses like the Asian land bridge, reflecting a scientific framework that some find reductive. Together, these perspectives reveal the diversity of human experiences.
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justice, equity, self-determination, and liberation.
justice, equity, self-determination, and liberation
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struggles inform the significance of scholarship and inquiry
struggles inform the significance of scholarship and inquiry
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foundational concepts and debates in Chicanx and Latinx Studies
foundational concepts and debates in Chicanx and Latinx Studies
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human.libretexts.org human.libretexts.org
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y
It's every interesting how something so simple can turn very complex by just adding or taking things away such as the two pictures we were shown.
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ach decision will affect the look and feel of a scene
I know tend not to think about something so small as light in the movie, but it definitely has big effect on the scene and how some foreshadowing will go in the future of the said movie. I also like how they added cool temperature and was intrigued by that as well.
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but each one of them will affect how we engage the cinematic experience.
I know a lot of people work on movies due to how long the end credits are in marvel movies. but I guess I never took into consideration how much they actually do.
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socialsci.libretexts.org socialsci.libretexts.org
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While the cellular and molecular mechanisms that influence on physical and mental health have long been a central focus of neuroscience, only in recent years has attention turned to the epigenetic mechanisms behind the dynamic changes in gene expression responsible for normal cognitive function and increased risk for mental illness. Ongoing research will show if this increased attention on epigenetics can be exploited in the development of new therapeutic options that may alter the traces that early environment leaves on the genome. However, as discussed in this module, the epigenome is not static and can be molded by developmental signals, environmental perturbations, and disease states, which present an experimental challenge in the search for epigenetic risk factors in psychological disorders (Rakyan, Down, Balding, & Beck, 2011). The combination of genetic association maps studies with epigenome-wide developmental studies may help identify novel molecular mechanisms to explain features of inheritance of personality traits and transform our understanding of the biological basis of psychology. Importantly, these epigenetic studies may lead to identification of novel therapeutic targets and enable the development of improved strategies for early diagnosis, prevention, and better treatment of psychological and behavioral disorders.
Exciting that epigenetics can potentiaall ylead to newwer treament sfo rmental illness as it targets early enviorments shape gene expression.
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The primary epigenetic mark: DNA modification DNA methylation is the best-understood epigenetic modification influencing gene expression. DNA is composed of four types of naturally occurring nitrogenous bases: adenine (A), thymine (T), guanine (G), and cytosine (C). In mammalian genomes, DNA methylation occurs primarily at cytosine residues in the context of cytosines that are followed by guanines (CpG dinucleotides), to form 5-methylcytosine in a cell-specific pattern (Goll & Bestor, 2005; Law & Jacobsen, 2010; Suzuki & Bird, 2008). The enzymes that perform DNA methylation are called DNA methyltransferases (DNMTs), which catalyze the transfer of a methyl group to the cytosine (Adams, McKay, Craig, & Burdon, 1979). These enzymes are all expressed in the central nervous system and are dynamically regulated during development (Feng, Chang, Li, & Fan, 2005; Goto et al., 1994). The effect of DNA methylation on gene function varies depending on the period of development during which the methylation occurs and location of the methylated cytosine. Methylation of DNA in gene regulatory regions (promoter and enhancer regions) usually results in gene silencing and reduced gene expression (Ooi, O’Donnell, & Bestor, 2009; Suzuki & Bird, 2008; Sutter and Doerfler, 1980; Vardimon et al., 1982). This is a powerful regulatory mechanism that ensures that genes are expressed only when needed. Thus DNA methylation may broadly impact human brain development, and age-related misregulation of DNA methylation is associated with the molecular pathogenesis of neurodevelopmental disorders.
DNA Methylation is such a key way genes get turned on or off - amazing how this can affect brain devlopment.
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Early childhood is not only a period of physical growth; it is also a time of mental development related to changes in the anatomy, physiology, and chemistry of the nervous system that influence mental health throughout life. Cognitive abilities associated with learning and memory, reasoning, problem solving, and developing relationships continue to emerge during childhood. Brain development is more rapid during this critical or sensitive period than at any other, with more than 700 neural connections created each second. Herein, complex gene–environment interactions serve to increase the number of possible contacts between neurons, as they hone their adult synaptic properties and excitability. Many weak connections form to different neuronal targets; subsequently, they undergo remodeling in which most connections vanish and a few stable connections remain. These structural changes (or plasticity) may be crucial for the development of mature neural networks that support emotional, cognitive, and social behavior. The challenge for psychology has been to integrate findings from genetics and environmental (social, biological, chemical) factors into the study of personality and our understanding of the emergence of mental illness. These studies have demonstrated that common DNA sequence variation and rare mutations account for only a small fraction (1%–2%) of the total risk for inheritance of personality traits and mental disorders (Dick, Riley, & Kendler, 2010; Gershon, Alliey-Rodriguez, & Liu, 2011). Additionally, studies that have attempted to examine the mechanisms and conditions under which DNA sequence variation influences brain development and function have been confounded by complex cause-and-effect relationships (Petronis, 2010). Epigenetics has the potential to provide answers to these important questions. It refers to the transmission of observable characteristics (phenotype) in terms of gene expression in the absence of changes in DNA sequence (Waddington, 1942; Wolffe & Matzke, 1999). The advent of advanced techniques to study the distributions of regulators of gene expression throughout the genome led to the collective description of the “epigenome.” In contrast to the genome sequence, which is static and the same in almost all cells, the epigenome is highly dynamic, differing among cell types, tissues, and brain regions (Gregg et al., 2010). Recent studies have provided insights into epigenetic regulation of developmental pathways in response to a range of external environmental factors (Dolinoy, Weidman, & Jirtle, 2007). These environmental factors during early childhood and adolescence can cause changes in expression of genes conferring risk of mental health and chronic physical conditions. Thus, the examination of genetic–epigenetic–environment interactions from a developmental perspective may determine the nature of gene misregulation in psychological disorders. This module will provide an overview of the main components of the epigenome and review themes in recent epigenetic research that have relevance for psychology, to form the biological basis for the interplay between environmental signals and the genome in the regulation of individual differences in physiology, emotion, cognition, and behavior.
Fascinating how early childhood brain devlopment is shaped by both genes and enviorment, especially though epigenetics.
@Jennifer Hall, how might understanading epigentics change how we approach mental health treatment?
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socialsci.libretexts.org socialsci.libretexts.org
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Some common questions about nature–nurture are, how susceptible is a trait to change, how malleable is it, and do we “have a choice” about it? These questions are much more complex than they may seem at first glance. Height seems like a trait firmly rooted in our nature and unchangeable, but the average height of many populations in Asia and Europe has increased significantly in the past 100 years, due to changes in diet and the alleviation of poverty. There are a few rare genes that have been found to have significant (almost always negative) effects, such as the single gene that causes Huntington’s disease, or the Apolipoprotein gene that causes early onset dementia in a small percentage of Alzheimer’s cases. Aside from these rare genes, however, the genetic impact on behavior is broken up over many genes, each with very small effects. In fact, the same is true of environmental effects. We know that extreme environmental hardship causes catastrophic effects for many behavioral outcomes, however, within the average range of environmental events, those responsible for differences (e.g., why some children in a suburban third-grade classroom perform better than others) are much more difficult to grasp. The difficulties with finding clear-cut solutions to nature–nurture problems bring us back to the other great questions about our relationship with the natural world: the mind-body problem and free will. Investigations into what we mean when we say we are aware of something reveal that consciousness is not simply the product of a particular area of the brain, nor does choice turn out to be an orderly activity that we can apply to some behaviors but not others. So it is with nature and nurture: What at first may seem to be a straightforward matter, able to be indexed with a single number, becomes more and more complicated the closer we look. It is tempting to predict that the more we understand the wide-ranging effects of genetic differences on all human characteristics—especially behavioral ones—our cultural, ethical, legal, and personal ways of thinking about ourselves will have to undergo profound changes in response. One of the most important things modern genetics has taught us is that almost all human behavior is too complex to be nailed down, even from the most complete genetic information, unless we’re looking at identical twins. The science of nature and nurture has demonstrated that genetic differences among people are vital to human moral equality, freedom, and self-determination, not opposed to them. As Mordecai Kaplan said about the role of the past in Jewish theology, genetics gets a vote, not a veto, in the determination of human behavior. We should indulge our fascination with nature–nurture while resisting the temptation to oversimplify it.
I like how the reading points out that genese influence behavior but don't fully control it. That means there's alwayus room for change aand complexity.
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Another option for observing nature-nurture in humans involves twin studies. There are two types of twins: monozygotic (MZ) and dizygotic (DZ). Monozygotic twins, also called “identical” twins, result from a single zygote (fertilized egg) and have the same DNA. They are essentially clones. Dizygotic twins, also known as “fraternal” twins, develop from two zygotes and share 50% of their DNA. Fraternal twins are ordinary siblings who happen to have been born at the same time. To analyze nature–nurture using twins, we compare the similarity of MZ and DZ pairs. Sticking with the features of height and spoken language, let’s take a look at how nature and nurture apply: Identical twins, unsurprisingly, are almost perfectly similar for height. The heights of fraternal twins, however, are like any other sibling pairs: more similar to each other than to people from other families, but hardly identical. This contrast between twin types gives us a clue about the role genetics plays in determining height. Now consider spoken language. If one identical twin speaks Spanish at home, the co-twin with whom she is raised almost certainly does too. But the same would be true for a pair of fraternal twins raised together. In terms of spoken language, fraternal twins are just as similar as identical twins, so it appears that the genetic match of identical twins doesn’t make much difference. Twin and adoption studies are two instances of a much broader class of methods for observing nature-nurture called quantitative genetics, the scientific discipline in which similarities among individuals are analyzed based on how biologically related they are. We can do these studies with siblings and half-siblings, cousins, twins who have been separated at birth and raised separately (Bouchard, Lykken, McGue, & Segal, 1990; such twins are very rare and play a smaller role than is commonly believed in the science of nature–nurture), or with entire extended families (see Plomin, DeFries, Knopik, & Neiderhiser, 2012, for a complete introduction to research methods relevant to nature–nurture). For better or for worse, contentions about nature–nurture have intensified because quantitative genetics produces a number called a heritability coefficient, varying from 0 to 1, that is meant to provide a single measure of genetics’ influence of a trait. In a general way, a heritability coefficient measures how strongly differences among individuals are related to differences among their genes. But beware: Heritability coefficients, although simple to compute, are deceptively difficult to interpret. Nevertheless, numbers that provide simple answers to complicated questions tend to have a strong influence on the human imagination, and a great deal of time has been spent discussing whether the heritability of intelligence or personality or depression is equal to one number or another.
Twin studies here really highlgihted how genetics and enviomrent interaact. Especially with traits like langauge/height.
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Overview There are three related problems at the intersection of philosophy and science that are fundamental to our understanding of our relationship to the natural world: the mind–body problem, the free will problem, and the nature–nurture problem. It seems that most people, even those without much knowledge of science or philosophy, have opinions about the answers to these questions that come simply from observing the world we live in. Our feelings about our relationship with the physical and biological world often seem incomplete. We are in control of our actions in some ways, but at the mercy of our bodies in others; it feels obvious that our consciousness is some kind of creation of our physical brains, at the same time we sense that our awareness must go beyond just the physical. This incomplete knowledge of our relationship with nature leaves us fascinated and a little obsessed, like a cat that climbs into a paper bag and then out again, over and over, mystified every time by a relationship between inner and outer that it can see but can’t quite understand. It may seem obvious that we are born with certain characteristics while others are acquired, and yet of the three great questions about humans’ relationship with the natural world, only nature–nurture gets referred to as a “debate.” In the history of psychology, no other question has caused so much controversy and offense: We are so concerned with nature–nurture because our very sense of moral character seems to depend on it. The problem is, most human characteristics aren’t usually as clear-cut as, for example height or instrument-mastery, affirming our nature–nurture expectations strongly one way or the other. In fact, even the great violinist might have some inborn qualities—perfect pitch, or long, nimble fingers—that support and reward his hard work. And the basketball player might have eaten a diet while growing up that promoted her genetic tendency for being tall. When we think about our own qualities, they seem under our control in some respects, yet beyond our control in others. And often the traits that don’t seem to have an obvious cause are the ones that concern us the most and are far more personally significant. What about how much we drink or worry? What about our honesty, or religiosity, or sexual orientation? They all come from that uncertain zone, neither fixed by nature nor totally under our own control.
The nature-nurture problem highlets just how compelx traaits liek personality habits don't fit neatly into either category.
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socialsci.libretexts.org socialsci.libretexts.org
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Evolutionary Psychology and Cultural Influences In evolutionary psychology, culture also has a major effect on psychological adaptations. For example, status within one’s group is important in all cultures for achieving reproductive success, because higher status makes someone more attractive to mates. In individualistic cultures, such as the United States, status is heavily determined by individual accomplishments. But in more collectivist cultures, such as Japan, status is more heavily determined by contributions to the group and by that group’s success. For example, consider a group project. If you were to put in most of the effort on a successful group project, the culture in the United States reinforces the psychological adaptation to try to claim that success for yourself (because individual achievements are rewarded with higher status). However, the culture in Japan reinforces the psychological adaptation to attribute that success to the whole group (because collective achievements are rewarded with higher status). Evolutionary psychology, in short, does not predict rigid robotic-like “instincts.” That is, there isn’t one rule that works all the time. Rather, evolutionary psychology studies flexible, environmentally-connected and culturally-influenced adaptations that vary according to the situation. Psychological adaptations are hypothesized to be wide-ranging, and include food preferences, habitat preferences, mate preferences, and specialized fears. These psychological adaptations also include many traits that improve people's ability to live in groups, such as the desire to cooperate and make friends, or the inclination to spot and avoid frauds, punish rivals, establish status hierarchies, nurture children, and help genetic relatives. Research programs in evolutionary psychology develop and empirically test predictions about the nature of psychological adaptations.
Cool how culture shapes ho w psycholigcal adpations show up such as valuing indivudal vs. group success.
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Gene Selection Theory In modern evolutionary theory, all evolutionary processes boil down to an organism’s genes. Genes are the basic “units of heredity,” or the information that is passed along in DNA that tells the cells and molecules how to “build” the organism and how that organism should behave. Genes that are better able to encourage the organism to reproduce, and thus replicate themselves in the organism’s offspring, have an advantage over competing genes that are less able. For example, take female sloths: In order to attract a mate, they will scream as loudly as they can, to let potential mates know where they are in the thick jungle. Now, consider two types of genes in female sloths: one gene that allows them to scream extremely loudly, and another that only allows them to scream moderately loudly. In this case, the sloth with the gene that allows her to shout louder will attract more mates—increasing reproductive success—which ensures that her genes are more readily passed on than those of the quieter sloth.
Interesting how genge selection focuses on which genes help repdouction. So even lou ddscreaming in sloths is a gene advantage!
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Basics of Evolutionary Theory Evolution simply means change over time. Many think of evolution as the development of traits and behaviors that allow us to survive this “dog-eat-dog” world, like strong leg muscles to run fast, or fists to punch and defend ourselves. However, physical survival is only important if it eventually contributes to successful reproduction. That is, even if you live to be a 100-year-old, if you fail to mate and produce children, your genes will die with your body. Thus, reproductive success, not survival success, is the engine of evolution by natural selection. Every mating success by one person means the loss of a mating opportunity for another. Yet every living human being is an evolutionary success story. Each of us is descended from a long and unbroken line of ancestors who triumphed over others in the struggle to survive (at least long enough to mate) and reproduce. However, in order for our genes to endure over time—to survive harsh climates, to defeat predators—we have inherited adaptive, psychological processes designed to ensure success. At the broadest level, we can think of organisms, including humans, as having two large classes of adaptations—or traits and behaviors that evolved over time to increase our reproductive success. The first class of adaptations are called survival adaptations: mechanisms that helped our ancestors handle the “hostile forces of nature.” For example, in order to survive very hot temperatures, we developed sweat glands to cool ourselves. In order to survive very cold temperatures, we developed shivering mechanisms (the speedy contraction and expansion of muscles to produce warmth). Other examples of survival adaptations include developing a craving for fats and sugars, encouraging us to seek out particular foods rich in fats and sugars that keep us going longer during food shortages. Some threats, such as snakes, spiders, darkness, heights, and strangers, often produce fear in us, which encourages us to avoid them and thereby stay safe. These are also examples of survival adaptations. However, all of these adaptations are for physical survival, whereas the second class of adaptations are for reproduction, and help us compete for mates. These adaptations are described in an evolutionary theory proposed by Charles Darwin, called sexual selection theory.
Intersting as to how survival and repdouctive adaptaions are separated. Could traits liek confidence today come from past mating strategies? @jennifer hall, how is sexual slecetion different from natural slection in shain behavior?
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human.libretexts.org human.libretexts.org
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our shared cinematic language
I think this was a pretty good break down of the three acts, and I also appreciated that it is very similar to the books and how we got to see that them putting into prospective as if we were to read a book but still stayed on the movie department.
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how does the script page compare to the finished scene? What do you notice in the script that isn’t on the screen?
I think the only thing I noticed that was different was the weather. I also know the characters weren't affected by any weather, so I also see not the need to put it in there.
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hey don’t want to miss anything, so you have to describe in detail everything you’re seeing and hearing by yelling across the apartment. What do you include? What do you leave out?
I love the example it made me think about much clearer. I was a little bit confused at the beginning because i tend to look at the big picture which is the script which overwhelms me because there is a lot going on
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socialsci.libretexts.org socialsci.libretexts.org
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So, even though the process may be challenging, it can also be a time for learning and growth.
Just as living organisms we must evolve to survive, our cognitive schemas must also grow and adapt, or they become rigid and ineffective.
If a person clings to outdated schemas, they risk misunderstanding new information, struggling in relationships, or feeling stuck in old patterns that no longer serve them. Growth, in this sense, means integrating new experiences, challenging assumptions, and being open to change. Those who resist adaptation may find themselves disconnected from evolving social, cultural, or personal realities—essentially, their ability to navigate life dies in a figurative sense.
This principle applies to everything from personal beliefs and emotional regulation to professional skills and societal norms. A healthy mind, like a thriving organism, remains dynamic, learning from new experiences rather than being trapped in past perceptions.
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We also organize interactions and interpersonal experiences based on our firsthand experiences. When two people experience the same encounter differently, misunderstandings and conflict may result.
I was recently reading a book called “The Eight Dates” by John Gottman and he references this concept frequently. Though in their terms it’s further elaborated that the friction can only be resolved through curious it’s, respect and a focus on shared meaning. Conflict is inevitable but there are always going more ways to share a common ground. We as people love being right but in the end, love our interpersonal relationships more.
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Our brain innately categorizes and files information and experiences away for later retrieval, and different parts of the brain are responsible for different sensory experiences.
Emotional packed conversations with individuals who suffer from PTSD often lead to conflict due to the misfire of perception. Heightened sensitivity to stimuli can trigger a fight flight or freeze response that leads to them being overly defensive, withdrawn or completely dissociated. Hyper-vigilance may cause their tone to then be misinterpreted and the guilt and shame can make open communication challenging. These misunderstandings come from a survival mechanism the brain has created to protect though the dysfunction becomes a barrier to effective communication.
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Again, as communicators, especially in persuasive contexts, we can use this to our advantage by making it clear how our message or proposition meets the needs of our audience members.
Growing up in the turn of the millennia I distinctly remember the dial-u tone of the AOL “ You’ve Got Mail.” Though, I jokingly use the phrase when friends haven’t responded to a message and then I see them in person. The reference is definitely not received when pointed at a different audience. Without the sound, speaking from experience, the more common response is now “where’s my piece of paper?” The context that we learn and associate phrases and the relevance in which they’re said is where the importance to every statement lies.
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We respond differently to an object or person that we perceive favorably than we do to something we find unfavorable
From a parenting perspective, there’s an interesting correlation to a common contradiction. It’s well known that we teach kids to not “take candy from a stranger.” Though, one night a year we prepare amply to walk along with them to strangers’ doorstep and encourage them to. Not by saying “please may I have some candy?” ( Please* being another phrase we adamantly teach to our young when asking for something we want.) Instead we urge “trick or treat” in this scenario, awaiting the strangers’ response to ideally play along with our once-a-year, rule-bending ritual. Optimistically teaching them that not all people need to remain strangers and that we as a community can build trust. How hard it must be for children to conceive and play along with these exceptions.
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math.libretexts.org math.libretexts.org
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socialsci.libretexts.org socialsci.libretexts.org
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Conversely, the breakdown in the ability of a person to intrapersonally communicate is associated with mental illness (Dance & Larson, 1976).
In the lecture video on communication by Professor Bennet she explained that interpersonal communication is the most common yet least studied. Though, I would argue that in the ways our mental health field has progressed over the pat century, our understanding of inner dialogue is as well. Providers are listening to the roots of what is causing the illness and then strategizing solutions. There seems to be a direct correlation between how someone views themselves and how they view the world around them. Some mental health providers employ a tactic to improved patients struggling with depression by requiring them to reflect on five positive things they did that day. Just the intended time in finding moments of value increases their view of their life. therefore studying their own dialogue, changing the view, then is providing a stronger basis for interpersonal and intrapersonal relationships.
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There was also a distinction of focus and interest among professors of speech. While some focused on the quality of ideas, arguments, and organization, others focused on coaching the performance and delivery aspects of public speaking (Keith, 2008).
In my experience, taking a course can vary drastically from one professor to the next. In the movie The Dead Poet’s Society, the teacher addresses the class while standing on top of a desk which is very out of the ordinary for the boy school he’s teaching at. Throughout the movie he is encouraging them to think for themselves. The students then eventually are shaped by his ideas and learn more than the text he was assigned to teach. In this way he was able to provide his students a route of learning, curiosity and confidence to communicate through out life. It provokes that what you say and how you say it are equally valuable.
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The Age of Enlightenment in the 1700s marked a societal turn toward scientific discovery and the acquisition of knowledge, which led to an explosion of philosophical and scientific writings on many aspects of human existence.
Looking back over time, humans have had these beautiful waves in sharing information. During the Age of Enlightenment, Shakespeare gave us some of the most compelling pieces of literary work. The Bard lives on today as seen by the modern retelling of some of his most famous plays. For instance, 10 things I Hate About You is a retelling of The Taming of the Shrew. The main character Kat is directly coordinated with the “Shrew.” Several different characters give homage to Shakespeare in phrase and in how they dress. Though it can be hard to tell without knowing the reference, the themes created by Shakespeare have been modified to address the audience of our modern society.
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Since this form of communication deals so directly with our personal relationships and is the most common form of communication, instances of miscommunication and communication conflict most frequently occur here (Dance & Larson, 1976).
In recent local news we have had a controversy about a teacher in the West Ada School District. She had posted a sign in her classroom that said “All Are Welcome Here” each word in a different color. She explained in a news article released by KTVB that posting these signs in the classroom was a way of promoting inclusivity. The Principal of the school directed the signs to be removed and though she originally did, she placed them back up as a way to stand by her values. The school district would not make a formal public address about the subject but did note in summary that their overall goal was to foster kindness while eliminating distractions. This conflict seems to have affected multiple layers of our community through how they interpret the sign and the way this disagreement was managed. Many posters and signs are posted around every school I have ever been in, some being a gender segregation signifying which bathroom you are publicly allowed in. It is ambiguous to determine what is a “distraction” versus what is encouraging an inclusive environment. What kind of academic challenges arise when someone does not feel included in a classroom? To my knowledge, the teacher and principal still work alongside each other. This type of public light on their conflict seems like it would lead to a very tense work environment.
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The beginning of the “Manuscript Era,” around 3500 BCE, marked the turn from oral to written culture. This evolution in communication corresponded with a shift to a more settled, agrarian way of life (Poe, 2011). As hunter-gatherers settled into small villages and began to plan ahead for how to plant, store, protect, and trade or sell their food, they needed accounting systems to keep track of their materials and record transactions.
It's crazy to me how even though the vast majority of human history has been spent as practically cavemen. However we never really started to advance until we started agriculture. This is very interesting to me in particular, because I am very interested in history and how we as people started inventing slowly at first and then faster and faster until today and we'll hopefully keep on going and inventing wonderful things like agriculture and computers until long after I'm dead too. But as we invent new things we need to come up with new words for them.
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socialsci.libretexts.org socialsci.libretexts.org
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Some communication behaviors indicate that we are not communicating mindfully, such as withdrawing from a romantic partner or engaging in passive-aggressive behavior during a period of interpersonal conflict.
I think that it is very cool that this textbook and this course are teaching us not only how to be better professional communicators, but also better personal communicators. I feel like this could be very helpful for a lot of people.
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many students still resist taking communication classes. Perhaps people think they already have good communication skills or can improve their skills on their own. While either of these may be true for some, studying communication can only help. In such a competitive job market, being able to document that you have received communication instruction and training from communication professionals (the faculty in your communication department) can give you the edge needed to stand out from other applicants or employees.
I think that many students resist taking communications classes because of the stress they cause, although that may just be me. I know that I didn't want to take communications not because I'm "too good" at it. No I didn't want to take communications because every time I have to speak in public my heart starts beating really fast and I get really bad anxiety for a while. I know that isn't how it is for everyone, however I just wanted to share my experience with avoiding communications and classes like it.
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socialsci.libretexts.org socialsci.libretexts.org
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then you’re what some scholars have called “digital natives.”
Calling someone a "digital native" is very interesting to me, because as someone born ten years after the invention of the internet I've obviously never seen the pre-internet world. And it is just a very strange thing for me to hear, as a world without internet doesn't exist for me and never has. The same with computers too, I cannot imagine a world without computers, and I especially can't imagine a world without the internet, as I'm sure many others in my generation agree.
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Of course, we don’t just communicate verbally—we have various options, or channels for communication. Encoded messages are sent through a channel, or a sensory route on which a message travels, to the receiver for decoding. While communication can be sent and received using any sensory route (sight, smell, touch, taste, or sound), most communication occurs through visual (sight) and/or auditory (sound) channels. If your roommate has headphones on and is engrossed in a video game, you may need to get his attention by waving your hands before you can ask him about dinner.
This is especially interesting to me now, as we saw the rise of smartphones people started to talk to each other in person less and less, especially after 2020. And I just think it's interesting to see how peoples interactions with each other changed after that. There is simply a lot more communication that is only text based now, I'd argue more now than there has ever been before. And I know from experience how easy it can be to misinterpret a text that someone sent, because you can't tell what tone they said it in through text and you can't see if they make a hand or arm motion to show its a joke, or a million other things could happen and cause someone to misjudge the situation that could never happen in person for a million different reasons.
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communicate with the professor, get notes from a classmate, make sure you did not miss anything important in your notes
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reorganize your notes in relation to your other notes, start the studying process by testing yourself on the material, make an appointment with your professor if you are not clear on a concept
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take detailed notes, ask critical thinking or clarifying questions, avoid distractions, bring your book and your reading notes
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read the assigned chapter, take notes, record any questions you have about the reading
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They develop their writing skills.
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They don’t need to schedule study periods because they study at every available moment every day.
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They know how to stay motivated.
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Returning As a result, I have had many years of experience in the medical field already and returning back to school to get my Nursing Degree and farthing my education from Medical Assistant to Registered Nurse has been a dream of mine
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My current workforce is giving, and past workforce experiences have given me anticipated experience that is helping get through school and the experience I have accomplished in the last 22yrs I have been in the medical field
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The value that I will likely have less time or money to spend on while in college is really nothing at this point everything so far has been paid for and I just work a full-time job and still attend school
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the value that will be richer in my future life because I have a college education will be to be able to help others and fill my purpose that I strongly believe that I have been sent to do.
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I feel very confident in overcoming any possible obstacles because I know that I have the support of my friends and family to get me through this journey
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Just getting through the Nursing Program will most likely be the hardest part to accomplish but if I keep pushing I will succeed
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2-3 courses per term to reach my goal
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All together I have had it set in thought of 4 yrs to get achieve the two degrees I would like to achieve to accomplish my goals for my Nursing degree
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I . . .
I feel it is my purpose to help others get better and help them heal so they able to live a full potential life.
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Why do you want to use my new skills and knowledge to help these people live a life they deserve?
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I feel they always have needs for Nurses that are needed in many levels and different medical fields, and I would love to be a part of it
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Why do you feel it is important that people who need medical help needs nurses to take care of them?
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I believe that all people deserve to be treated for illnesses and taken care of to help make them feel better
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want to help people and take care of them?
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so i am able to help and take care of people
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want to earn a degree in Nursing?
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Earn my degree in Nursing
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In order to keep my grades up to college level expectations to study and take notes and get the grades that I need to be able to pass and gradaute
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human.libretexts.org human.libretexts.org
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Every argument contains at least one intended conclusion plus one or more supporting reasons, called premises. * some passages its not easy to tell whether an argument occurs at all, or what premises and conclusion of an argument really are, or how other arguments in passage are related to argument
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- DESCRIPTIONS state facts, states of mind, express values, etc.
- EXPLANATIONS DO NOT
- assume you are already convinced, instead try to show the cause, motivation, or sequence of events
- Some arguments strong enough to be called proofs
- ARGUMENTS usually given to settle an issue one way or another
- its topic more general that its addressed issue
- Premise & Conclusion indicator phrases serve as guideposts for detecting arguments
- ALMOST all have implicit elements
- most common: statements of common knowledge definitions of words, principles of grammar, and rules of mathematics
- Rewriting arguments in standard form: helpful way to display essential context ex) sub-arguments
- Arguments can be seen as deductively valid or inductively strong
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- INDUCTIVELY STRONG: premises support conclusion w/ high probability (small chance conclusion is false even if all premises are true)
- opposite of deductively valid
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if argument has counterexample, cannot be valid
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human.libretexts.org human.libretexts.org
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one-point perspective:
I use to watch American horror story a lot and they had an intro very similar every season the only difference was the pictures at the start of every new season.
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“The actor seemed like they were in a different movie from everyone else.”
we can see a lot of bad acting within small movie productions and example of the is the movie twilight and how some of the lines weren't exactly portraited correctly and left the crowd in an awkward standpoint. but to this bad acting some people have remade the movies into a different category. like an example is scream and the comedy for that is scary movie.
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That comparison between cinema and literature is not accidental
I think it's easier to look at a movie like you would break down a book in reading class. you can tell the was the movie is about by the theme. All though you don't exactly have music in a book you get the characters thoughts.
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I think it's interesting to go into the vocab of making a movie, all though we have all heard this phrases before we were never really had these words broken down.
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human.libretexts.org human.libretexts.org
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MAIN IDEA/CONCEPT: Logical reasoning is the "guide" to making good decisions.
- **IDEA/CONCEPT (Own Words):** The importance of logical thinking and how it is critical in making a good argument as it assists in getting to know if the given information is truthful or not.
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(1) ask for reasons before accepting a conclusion, (2) give an argument to support your conclusion, (3) tailor reasons to your audience, (4) design your reasons to imply the conclusion, (5) recognize the value of having more relevant information, (6) weigh the pros and cons, (7) consider the possible courses of action, (8) look at the consequences of these various courses of action, (9) evaluate the consequences, (10) consider the probabilities that those various consequences will actually occur, (11) delay making important decisions when practical, (12) assess what is said in light of the situation, (13) don't take people too literally, (14) use your background knowledge and common sense in drawing conclusions, (15) remember that extraordinary statements require extraordinarily good evidence, (16) defer to the expert, (17) remember that firmer conclusions require better reasons, (18) be consistent in your own reasoning, (19) be on the lookout for inconsistency in the reasoning of yourself and others, (20) check to see whether explanations fit all the relevant facts, (21) you can make your opponent's explanation less believable by showing that there are alternative explanations that haven't been ruled out, (22) stick to the subject, and (23) don't draw a conclusion until you’ve gotten enough evidence.
LOGICAL REASONING: IMPORTANT (GUIDE TO MAKING GOOD DECISIONS)
- before accepting a conclusion, ask for reasons
- to support your conclusion, give an argument
- reach the audience's level of reasoning
- design reasons to imply (suggest) conclusion
- there is value in having relevant info
- weigh the pros and cons
- think of possible courses of action
- think of the consequences (if given enough time)
- consider probabilities of said consequences
- when practical, DELAY MAKING IMPORTANT DECISIONS
- assess what is said in light of the situation
- use background knowledge/common sense when drawing conclusions
- extraordinary conclusions need extraordinary evidence
- LOOK FOR EXPERTS!!!
- firmer conclusions need better reasons
- be consistent in reasoning
- look for inconsistencies in your & others' reasoning
- see if explanations fit relevant facts
- can make the opponent's explanations less convincing by showing alternative explanations that HAVEN'T been ruled out
- STICK TO SUBJECT
- DO NOT DRAW CONCLUSIONS UNTIL ENOUGH EVIDENCE IS GATHERED.
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(3.6.4)
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How Covalent Bonds Form Using the Octet Rule
Covalent bonds form when two nonmetal atoms share electrons to achieve a stable electron configuration, often following the octet rule. The octet rule states that atoms tend to form bonds until they have eight valence electrons, resembling the electron configuration of noble gases.
Step 1: Understanding Electron Sharing - Atoms with similar tendencies to attract electrons (like nonmetals) will share electrons rather than transfer them.<br /> - In a covalent bond, each atom contributes one or more electrons to achieve a full valence shell.
Step 2: Formation of a Covalent Bond - When two atoms approach each other, their outermost (valence) orbitals begin to overlap.<br /> - The shared electrons are attracted to both nuclei, which stabilizes the molecule.<br /> - The optimal bond length is the point where attractive forces (between electrons and nuclei) are balanced with repulsive forces (between like charges).
Example: Hydrogen (H₂) Molecule - Each hydrogen atom has one valence electron. - By sharing their single electrons, both achieve a stable configuration with two electrons, like helium.
H • + • H → H:H (or H—H)
This stable bond occurs at 74 pm, the optimal distance where attractive and repulsive forces are balanced.
Step 3: Applying the Octet Rule - Hydrogen (H): Only needs 2 electrons (duet rule).<br /> - Other nonmetals (C, N, O, etc.):Typically follow the octet rule by sharing enough electrons to reach 8 valence electrons.
Example: Fluorine (F₂) Molecule - Each fluorine atom has 7 valence electrons. - By sharing one unpaired electron, each atom completes its octet.
F • + • F → F:F (or F—F)
Each fluorine now has one bonding pair(shared electrons) and three lone pairs(non-bonding electrons).
Key Points - Single bonds involve one shared pair of electrons (e.g., H₂, F₂).<br /> - Atoms can also form **double or triple bonds if they need to share more pairs of electrons to satisfy the octet rule (e.g., O₂, N₂).<br /> - Some elements like Boron (B)or Beryllium (Be)may form stable molecules without a full octet, while elements in Period 3 or higher can form expanded octets
By sharing electrons, nonmetal atoms create stable molecules that satisfy the octet rule, ensuring each atom reaches a stable electron configuration.
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