Figure 1.1.21.1.2\PageIndex{2}: Canyons like this, carved in the deposit left by the May 18th, 1980 eruption of Mt. St. Helens, are sometimes used by purveyors of pseudoscience as evidence for the Earth being very young. In reality, the non-lithified volcanic deposit is carved much more easily than other canyons like the Grand Canyon.

Another way scientists avoid bias is by using quantitative over qualitative measurements whenever possible.

1.3: Accuracy, Precision, and Significant Figures

The Paleozoic era was dominated by marine organisms, but by the middle of the era, plants and animals had evolved to live and reproduce on land, including amphibians and reptiles.

These first well-preserved fossils are photosynthetic microbial mats, called stromatolites, found in Australia [41].

The outermost part of the solar system is known as the Kuiper belt, which is a scattering of rocky and icy bodies.

Because the light wavelengths of receding objects are extended, visible light is shifted toward the red end of the spectrum, called a redshift.

The big-bang theory proposes the universe was formed from an infinitely dense and hot core of the material.

The universe appears to have an infinite number of galaxies and solar systems and our solar system occupies a small section of this vast entirety. The origins of the universe and solar system set the context for conceptualizing the Earth’s origin and early history.

In casual conversation, the word theory implies guesswork or speculation. In the language of science, an explanation or conclusion made in a theory carries much more weight because it is supported by experimental verification and widely accepted by the scientific community. After a hypothesis has been repeatedly tested for falsifiability through documented and independent studies, it eventually becomes accepted as a scientific theory.

The theory of evolution by natural selection is another example. Originating from the work of Charles Darwin in the mid-19th century, the theory of evolution has withstood generations of scientific testing for falsifiability. While it has been updated and revised to accommodate knowledge gained by using modern technologies, the theory of evolution continues to be supported by the latest evidence.

Trace fossils are indirect evidence left behind by an organism, such as burrows and footprints, as it lived its life.

This theory of evolution by natural selection was elaborated by Darwin in his book On the Origin of Species (see Chapter 1) [36]. Since Darwin’s original ideas, technology has provided many tools and mechanisms to study how evolution and speciation take place and this arsenal of tools is growing. Evolution is well beyond the hypothesis stage and is a well-established theory of modern science.

Actual preservation is a rare form of fossilization where the original materials or hard parts of the organism are preserved. Preservation of soft-tissue is very rare since these organic materials easily disappear because of bacterial decay [24]. Examples of actual preservation are unaltered biological materials like insects in amber or original minerals like mother-of-pearl on the interior of a shell.

vessels of dinosaurs, from which proteins have been isolated and evidence for DNA fragments have been discovered [27].

natural selection

blood vessels of dinosaurs, from which proteins have been isolated and evidence for DNA fragments have been discovered

Mosquito preserved in amber

Actual preservation is a rare form of fossilization where the original materials or hard parts of the organism are preserved.

Ichnology is specifically the study of prehistoric animal tracks

Faunal Succession

carbonization

Permineralization occurs when an organism is buried, and then elements in groundwater completely impregnate all spaces within the body, even cells. Soft body structures can be preserved in great detail, but stronger materials like bone and teeth are the most likely to be preserved. Petrified wood is an example of detailed cellulose structures in the wood being preserved.

Fossils are any evidence of past life preserved in rocks. They may be actual remains of body parts (rare), impressions of soft body parts, casts and molds of body parts (more common), body parts replaced by mineral (common) or evidence of animal behavior such as footprints and burrows.

Using this new technology, they could assign specific time units, in this case years, to mineral grains within a rock.

However, some rock specimens have an enormous number of radioactive isotopes, perhaps trillions of atoms and this large group of radioactive isotopes do have a predictable pattern of radioactive decay. The radioactive decay of half of the radioactive isotopes in this group takes a specific amount of time. The time it takes for half of the atoms in a substance to decay is called the half-life.

During metamorphic events, zircon crystals may form multiple crystal layers, with each layer recording the isotopic age of an event, thus tracing the progress of the several metamorphic events

Beta Decay is when a neutron in its nucleus splits into an electron and a proton. The electron is emitted from the nucleus as a beta ray. The new proton increases the element’s atomic number by one, forming a new element with the same atomic mass as the parent isotope. For example, 234Th is unstable and undergoes beta decay to form protactinium-234 (234Pa), which also undergoes beta decay to form uranium-234 (234U). Notice these are all isotopes of different elements but they have the same atomic mass of 234.

Detrital sedimentary rocks contain clasts from separate parent rocks from unknown locations and derived ages are thus meaningless. However, sedimentary rocks with precipitated minerals, such as evaporites, may contain elements suitable for radioisotopic dating. Igneous pyroclastic layers and lava flows within a sedimentary sequence can be used to date the sequence. Cross-cutting igneous rocks and sills can be used to bracket the ages of affected, older sedimentary rocks.

he radioactive decay of any individual atom is a completely unpredictable and random event. However, some rock specimens have an enormous number of radioactive isotopes, perhaps trillions of atoms and this large group of radioactive isotopes do have a predictable pattern of radioactive decay. The radioactive decay of half of the radioactive isotopes in this group takes a specific amount of time.

Several prominent ash beds found in North America, including three Yellowstone eruptions

estimated the Earth is 98 million years old,

daughter isotope and the original element is called the parent isotope.

Zircon is resistant to weathering which makes it useful for dating geological events in ancient rocks. During metamorphic events, zircon crystals may form multiple crystal layers, with each layer recording the isotopic age of an event, thus tracing the progress of the several metamorphic events

lectron capture is when a proton in the nucleus captures an electron from one of the electron shells and becomes a neutron.

When this occurs, an unstable isotope becomes a more stable isotope of another element. For example, carbon-14 (14C) decays to nitrogen-14 (14N).

he discovery of radioactivity in the late 1800s provided scientists with a new scientific tool called radioisotopic dating.

the time elapsed since some silicate minerals, such as coarse-sediments of silicate minerals, were last exposed to light or heat at the surface of Earth.

may reset the clock and derived ages may represent a smear of different metamorphic events rather than the age of original

In the 1950s, Clair Patterson (1922–1995) thought he could determine the age of the Earth using radioactive isotopes from meteorites, which he considered to be early solar system remnants that were present at the time Earth was forming. Patterson analyzed meteorite samples for uranium and lead using a mass spectrometer. He used the uranium/lead dating technique in determining the age of the Earth to be 4.55 billion years, give or take about 70 million (± 1.5%) [15]. The current estimate for the age of the Earth is 4.54 billion years, give or take 50 million (± 1.1%) [13]. It is remarkable that Patterson, who was still a graduate student at the University of Chicago, came up with a result that has been little altered in over 60 years, even as technology has improved dating methods.

Because science advances as technology advances, the discovery of radioactivity in the late 1800s provided scientists with a new scientific tool called radioisotopic dating. Using this new technology, they could assign specific time units, in this case years, to mineral grains within a rock.

Many elements have both stable and unstable isotopes. For the hydrogen example, 1H and 2H are stable, but 3H is unstable. Unstable isotopes, called radioactive isotopes, spontaneously decay over time releasing subatomic particles or energy in a process called radioactive decay.

apatite

Figure 7.2.17.2.1\PageIndex{1}:

1H and 2H are stable, but 3H is unstable.

(12CO2

alpha decay

crystallization

1H and 2H are stable, but 3H is unstable.

but were not generally accepted by scholars until the scientific revolution of the 17th and 18th centuries

This is a type of unconformity called a disconformity, where either non-deposition or erosion took place. In other words, layers of rock that could have been present, are absent.

angular unconformity.

igneous intrusions

strata

Deformation events like folds, faults and igneous intrusions that cut across rocks are younger than the rocks they cut across.

Stratigraphy is the study of layered sedimentary rocks

When sea-level fell, the land was exposed to erosion creating an unconformity.

deposited, so there are no rocks that represent events of Earth history during that span of time at

Principle of Superposition

this erosion is shown as heavy wavy lines between the various numbered strata

unconformity

The Phanerozoic strata in most of the Grand Canyon are horizontal.

The predominant white layer just below the canyon rim is the Coconino Sandstone.

Principle of Fossil Succession: Evolution has produced a succession of unique fossils that correlate to the units of the geologic time scale. Assemblages of fossils contained in strata are unique to the time they lived and can be used to correlate rocks of the same age across a wide geographic distribution. Assemblages of fossils refer to groups of several unique fossils occurring together.

Principle of Superposition: In an otherwise undisturbed sequence of sedimentary strata, or rock layers, the layers on the bottom are the oldest and layers above them are younger.

There are three types of unconformities, nonconformity, disconformity, and angular unconformity.

Relative dating

metamorphic rocks at the bottom.

on the bottom are the oldest and layers above them are younger.

one rock or geologic event is older or younger than another,

s: When one rock formation contains pieces or inclusions of another rock, the included rock is older than the host rock.

The Grand Canyon of Arizona illustrates the stratigraphic principles. The photo shows layers of rock on top of one another in order, from the oldest at the bottom to the youngest at the top, based on the principle of superposition.

This is a type of unconformity called a disconformity, where either non-deposition or erosion took place. In other words, layers of rock that could have been present, are absent. The time that could have been represented by such layers is instead represented by the disconformity. Disconformities are unconformities that occur between parallel layers of strata indicating either a period of no deposition or erosion.

The photo shows layers of rock on top of one another in order, from the oldest at the bottom to the youngest at the top, based on the principle of superposition. The predominant white layer just below the canyon rim is the Coconino Sandstone. This layer is laterally continuous, even though the intervening canyon separates its outcrops. The rock layers exhibit the principle of lateral continuity, as they are found on both sides of the Grand Canyon which has been carved by the Colorado River.

The photo shows layers of rock on top of one another in order, from the oldest at the bottom to the youngest at the top, based on the principle of superposition.

gneiss

sedimentary strata, or rock layers

Fromm viewed societies as forces that lead to alienation from a more natural, primitive way of life. As a result, freedom and individuality actually create psychological problems, as we become disconnected from our immediate social groups (such as the family or local community). This often leads to unfortunate consequences, such as seeking fellowship within a society at the expense of one’s regard for self and others, providing a framework within which dictatorships can develop (as individuals completely surrender their freedom).

imporatnt

Think about the setting and environment of grocery stores in each culture. Would these differences change the way one interacts with others?

What movies or tv shows impacted you as a child? How did they influence your social norms and values?

What are some examples of “hidden curriculum” that you experienced? How did it impact you then and now? Share any books that you read (either assigned or personal choice) that might have influenced any thoughts or ideas that you had as a child or teenager. How did they impact you now and then?

What are your thoughts…. Should parents get the credit when their children turn out to be “good” kids and even go on to accomplish great things in life? Should they get the blame if their children turn out to be “bad”?

Some of these microscopic organisms had hard parts, such as exoskeletons or outer shells, making them better candidates for preservation. Foraminifera, single-celled organisms with calcareous shells, are an example of an especially useful index fossil for the Cretaceous Period and Cenozoic Era [37].

Figure 7.4.17.4.1\PageIndex{1}:

Conodonts

Figure 7.4.1

Lithos is Greek for stone and -logy comes from the Greek word for doctrine or science.

Conodonts

Eon is the largest division of time, followed by era, period, epoch, and age.

biostratigraphic

Fossils

lithology

narrow time frame.

Affirmative action is defined as a set of procedures designed to; eliminate unlawful discrimination among applicants, remedy the results of such prior discrimination, and prevent such discrimination in the future

Affirmative action has been a contentious measure to address equity.

Studies across the nation show that Black women have higher mortality rates while giving birth, and Black children have higher infant mortality rates. Some of the mortality rates among women tie to the lack of quality healthcare, doctors that have a bias against them as Black women, and more.

New Jim Crow (2010) chronicles the great systemic issue of incarceration that disproportionately affects communities of color, especially Black people. Michelle Alexander names statistic after statistic that demonstrates how white youth, for example, are criminalized way less and less harshly compared to Black youth (pp. 95-99). Cocaine is criminalized less than crack, as there are harsher penalties for being caught with crack.

he city was a testament to Black communities’ capacity and a centralized hub of intellectual and financial capital. It became known as Black Wall Street due to its economic, political, and social significance

“one drop” rule was applied to mixed-race people, meaning that if you had even one drop of Black blood, that made you legally and socially considered to be Black

Jim Crow era. This was a time when public institutions actively established racial segregation.

d Black Codes, were laws that created restrictions on Black people’s abilities to own property, conduct business, lease land, and move freely through public spaces. These regulations worked to keep separate the established white society from the lives of Black people.

three-fifths compromise was a decision in the 1787 U.S. Constitutional Convention that determined that while enslaved people were not eligible to vote, they would be counted toward the population when determining the number of representatives from each state, but only at 3/5th the rate of the free, white population

chattel slavery meant that not only were individuals enslaved, but their descendants inherited the quality of being enslaved as wel

double consciousness symbolized the psychological impact of living in a racist society for African Americans in the years following the end of slavery.

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it is possible for a relation to be neither reflexive nor irreflexive.

Panafricanism became the foundation for the idea of Blackness and Black identity, which brings together the experience of people of African heritage

Black Power is a movement and political belief system that emphasizes building Black-serving institutions and leaders

Black Nationalism is an ideology emphasizing pride in being Black, economic self-sufficiency, and Black separatism.

Two political frameworks that are important for understanding Garveyism and Black Studies are Black Power and Black Nationalism.

Panafricanism. His ideology emphasized pride, empowerment, and economic prosperity for Black communities, and is so widely studied and documented it came to be known as Garveyism

even people who speak the same language experience cultural differences because of their various intersecting cultural identities and personal experiences. We have a tendency to view our language as a whole more favorably than other languages.

Affective language can be intentionally used in relational contexts to create or enhance interpersonal bonds and can also be effectively employed in public speaking to engage an audience and motivate them in particular ways. We also use affective language spontaneously and less intentionally.

In some cases, swearing can be cathartic, allowing a person to release emotions that might otherwise lead to more aggressive or violent actions.

When you are trying to make sense of an experience, expressing observations in a descriptive rather than evaluative way can lessen defensiveness, which facilitates competent communication.

Expressing feelings can be uncomfortable for those listening. Some people are generally not good at or comfortable with receiving and processing other people’s feelings. Even those with good empathetic listening skills can be positively or negatively affected by others’ emotions. Expressions of anger can be especially difficult to manage because they represent a threat to the face and self-esteem of others. Despite the fact that expressing feelings is more complicated than other forms of expression, emotion sharing is an important part of how we create social bonds and empathize with others, and it can be improved.

Sometimes people intentionally or unintentionally express thoughts as if they were feelings. For example, when people say, “I feel like you’re too strict with your attendance policy,” they aren’t really expressing a feeling; they are expressing a judgment about the other person (a thought).

Jasper and Abby have been thinking about getting a new dog. So each of them is having a similar thought. They are each using the same symbol, the word dog, to communicate about their thought. Their referents, however, are different. Jasper is thinking about a small dog like a dachshund, and Abby is thinking about an Australian shepherd. Since the word dog doesn’t refer to one specific object in our reality, it is possible for them to have the same thought, and use the same symbol, but end up in an awkward moment when they get to the shelter and fall in love with their respective referents only to find out the other person didn’t have the same thing in mind.

Each pebble represented one chicken, meaning that each symbol (the pebble) had a direct correlation to another thing out in the world (its chicken). This system allowed the farmer to keep track of his livestock. He could periodically verify that each pebble had a corresponding chicken. If there was a discrepancy, he would know that a chicken was lost, stolen, or killed. Later, symbols were developed that made accounting a little easier. Instead of keeping track of boxes of pebbles, the farmer could record a symbol like the word five or the numeral 15 that could stand in for five or fifteen pebbles. This demonstrates how our symbols have evolved and how some still carry that ancient history with them, even though we are unaware of it.

Being aware of this indirect relationship between symbol and referent, we can try to compensate for it by getting clarification. Some of what we learned in the chapter titled “Communication and Perception”, about perception checking, can be useful here.

his suggests that Hispanics have a unique view of race that doesn’t necessarily fit within the official U.S. definitions.”13

When comparing Hispanic, Black, and white respondents, Hispanics were more likely to say the questions described them “not too well” or “not well at all,” suggesting they found the categories as not providing relevant options.12

The results of the 2020 census indicated that 15.1% of the total population (about 49.9 million people) selected the Some Other Race box alone or in combination, making it the second-largest race group. Interestingly,

rough their d

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we send and receive messages from others

it is important that we understand how culture influences our communication

How do you think this form of communication impacts your everyday experiences?

String Methods

Although this organizing pattern is more complicated than the others, it offers a proven structure that can help you organize your supporting materials and achieve your speech goals.

When organizing your speech, you want to start with the body. Even though most students want to start with the introduction,

One of the key elements of academic and professional public speaking is verbally citing your supporting materials so your audience can evaluate your credibility and the credibility of your sources.

It may be acceptable for you to include magazine sources in your speech, but you should still consider the credibility of the source. Magazines like Scientific American and Time are generally more credible and reliable than sources like People or Entertainment Weekly.

you may have to inform your audience about your topic in one main point before you can persuade them, or you may include some entertaining elements in an informative or persuasive speech to help make the content more engaging for the audience.

In summary, audiences enter a speaking situation with various psychological dispositions, and considering what those may be can help speakers adapt their messages and better meet their speech goals.

Your thesis statement

brainstorming a list of your personal interests that can then be narrowed down to a speech topic.

the general purpose of your speech will be to inform, to persuade, or to entertain.

If you’ve ever followed the approval rating of a politician, you know that people’s likes and dislikes change frequently and can change dramatically based on recent developments.

it would be unwise to focus solely on one group over another.

When considering your audience’s disposition toward your topic, you want to assess your audience’s knowledge of the subject. You wouldn’t include a lesson on calculus in an introductory math course.

It’s important to note that an outline is different from a script. While a script contains everything that will be said, an outline includes the main content.

Th

There are several underlying principles of development to keep in mind:

𝑃(𝐴1∪𝐴2∪𝐴3∪…)=𝑃(𝐴1)+𝑃(𝐴2)+𝑃(𝐴3)+…

which is c=πηa42l

Should We Raise the Minimum Wage?

Visit O*Net (http://online.onetcenter.org/find) and look up one of the careers you may be considering. What kinds of things does O*Net tell you about a career? ________________________________________________________________

tools

process

tools

people

ideas

data

Tertiary type

Secondary type

Primary type (the one I identify with most closely)

tropomyosin

Factin

properties

Noise

timing

There are five groups of early mammals in the fossil record, based primarily on fossil teeth, the hardest bone in vertebrate skeletons. For the purpose of this text, the most important group is the Eupantotheres, which diverges into the two main groups of mammals, the marsupials (Sinodelphys) and placentals or eutherians (Eomaia) in the Cretaceous and then diversified in the Cenozoic. The marsupials dominated on the isolated island continents of South America and Australia, and many went extinct in South America with the introduction of placental mammals. Some well-known mammal groups have been highly studied with interesting evolutionary stories in the Cenozoic

Pangea started breaking up (in a region that would become eastern Canada and United States) around 210 million years ago in the Late Triassic

Melted rock spheres [138], a special type of “shocked” quartz called stishovite, that only is found at impact sites, was found in many places around the world. The huge impact created a strong thermal pulse that could be responsible for global forest fires [141], strong acid rains [142], a corresponding abundance of ferns, the first colonizing plants after a forest fire [143], enough debris thrown into the air to significantly cool temperatures afterward [144; 145], and a 2-km high tsunami inferred from deposits found from Texas to Alabama.

Laurentia

The Paleozoic era had two smaller mass extinctions, but these were not as large as the Permian Mass Extinction, also known as the Permian-Triassic Extinction Event.

these oppositely charged ions attract each other, forming ionic bonds.

Those that lose electrons become positively charged, and those that gain electrons become negatively charged.

octet rule, and it is a key to understanding why compounds form.

Eventually, as oxygen continued to be made, absorption of oxygen in mineral precipitation leveled off, and dissolved oxygen gas started filling the oceans and eventually bubbling out into the atmosphere.

Early life in the Archean and earlier is poorly documented in the fossil record, but chemical evidence and evolutionary theory state that this life would have been single-celled photosynthetic organisms such as cyanobacteria in stromatolites. Fossil cyanobacteria in these stromatolites produced free oxygen in the atmosphere through photosynthesis. Cyanobacteria are prokaryotes, i.e. single-celled organisms (archaea and bacteria) with simple cells that lack a cell nucleus and other organelles.

a solution called normal saline is commonly administered intravenously in hospitals.

sodium chloride (NaCl), which is a simple compound

One hypothesis is that life arose from the chemical environment of the Earth’s early atmosphere and oceans, which was very different than today.

A craton has two main parts: the shield, which is crystalline basement rock near the surface, and the platform made of sedimentary rocks covering the shield. Most cratons have remained relatively unchanged with most tectonic activity having occurred around cratons instead of within them. Whether they were created by plate tectonics or another process, Archean continents gave rise to the Proterozoic continents that now dominate our planet

partially molten surface, volcanism, and asteroid impacts.

However, it is hard to know if Earth processes could have changed the water’s isotopic signature over the last 4-plus billion years. It is possible that all three sources contributed to the origin of Earth’s water.

There is possibly even evidence of life existing over 4.0 billion years ago. However, the most reliable record for early life, the microfossil record, starts at 3.5 billion years ago.

Fusion is a steady and predictable process,

Another process must be responsible for creating the other 90 heavier elements.

supernova

Doppler effect

upiter’s gravity

The planets continued to grow over the course of many thousands or millions of years, as material from the protoplanetary disc was added

We quickly cut through and push to the background all kinds of sights, smells, sounds, and other stimuli, but how do we decide what to select and what to leave out?

The principle of unity means that each letter or number represents one idea. One concrete way to help reduce the amount of ideas you include per item is to limit each letter or number to one complete sentence.

Think of each main point as a miniature speech within your larger speech. Each main point will have a central idea, meet some part of your specific purpose, and include supporting material from your research that relates to your thesis.

Second, most of the content on research databases has gone through editorial review, which means a professional editor or a peer editor has reviewed the material to make sure it is credible and worthy of publication. Most content on websites is not subjected to the same review process, as just about anyone with Internet access can self-publish information on a personal website, blog, wiki, or social media page.

Unless the guidelines or occasion for your speech suggest otherwise, you should balance your interview data with the other sources in your speech. Don’t let your references to the interview take over your speech.

Trust me, if you’ve thought of a topic to do your speech on, someone else has thought of it, too, and people have written and published about it. Reference librarians can help you find that information.

Speaking about something you’re familiar with and interested in can also help you manage speaking anxiety. While it’s good to start with your personal interests, some speakers may get stuck here if they don’t feel like they can make their interests relevant to the audience.

View having a captive classroom audience as a challenge, and use this space as a public speaking testing laboratory. You can try new things and push your boundaries more, because this audience is very forgiving and understanding since they have to go through the same things you do. In general, you may have to work harder to maintain the attention of a captive audience.

You may not be able to assume much more, but that’s enough to add some tailored points to your speech that will make the content more relevant.