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    1. four 00:08:25 major common misunderstandings that have infected our understanding of what it is to be a living system

      for - molecular biology - paradigm shift - living system - 4 common misunderstandings - book - Understanding Living Systems - 4 common misunderstandings

      4 common misunderstandings of living systems - 1. The central dogma of molecular biology - one way causation - Genes (DNA) to - proteins to - organism - 2. The Weismann Barrier - 3. DNA as self-replicator - 4. Separation of Replicator (DNA) and Vehicle (Living cell) are completely separate

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    1. The several panels show what happens in each cycle. Each cycle consists of a denaturation step at a temperature higher than the melting temperature of the duplex DNA (e.g. 95 oC ), then an annealing step at a temperature below the melting temperature for the primer-template (e.g. 55 oC), followed by extension of the primer by DNA polymerase using dNTPs provided in the reaction. This is done at the temperature optimum for the DNA polymerase (e.g. 70 oC for a thermostable polymerase). Thermocylers are commercially available for carrying out many cycles quickly and reliably
      • Denature
      • Annealing primer
      • Synthesize new DNA with polymerase
      • High speed
      • Extreme sensitivity
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    1. Proteins are made up of building blocks called amino acids. N501Y means that the 501st amino acid was originally an N, which stands for the amino acid asparagine, but has been changed to a Y, which stands for tyrosine.

      The takeaway: Amino acids, represented by single letters such as N or Y make up proteins which are part of the coronavirus (as well as other biology such as animals, plants, microorganisms, etc.). Mutations are written with the original amino acid letter followed by the number of the amino acid and the new amino acid letter.

      The claim: Proteins are made up of building blocks called amino acids. N501Y means that the 501st amino acid was originally an N, which stands for the amino acid asparagine, but has been changed to a Y, which stands for tyrosine.

      The evidence:

      Coronavirus is made up of greater than 20 proteins (1). The spike protein helps coronavirus attach and enter human cells which leads to infection and disease (1). The spike protein on SARS-CoV-2, the virus that causes COVID-19, is the target of many antibodies produced by the human body to fight the SARS-CoV-2 infection (2). Changes in the spike protein sequence may necessitate a change in the human immune system to produce antibodies which stop SARS-CoV-2 from infecting human cells. Changes in the amino acid sequence are written as was stated in the claim: original amino acid, number of the amino acid in the sequence, new amino acid.

      Sources:

      1) https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7247499/

      2) https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33448402/