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This Study

chart of the adapted Kinetik-experiment after Flossmann & Richter.

Unlike the original protocol, a pre-washing step to remove soluble P was not performed

Switzerland

fixed-plot t

To manage this challenge,

The efficacy of P fertilization is often low due to these rapid and competing immobilization processes, and P lost from agricultural fields can become an environmental pollutant, disturbing P-limited aquatic ecosystem

The efficacy of P fertilization is often low due to these rapid immobilization processes, and P lost from agricultural fields can become an environmental pollutant, disturbing P-limited aquatic ecosystems.

you need to understand parts of culture more deeply than everyone else using the same AI systems

It shows you, roughly, what is in the 12M images that make up a key database used by AI image generators:

ChatGPT cannot seem to remember or understand

they don’t have your voice, your thoughts, your accent

You must demonstrate curiosity about new subjects and perspectives andbe willing to exert time and energy to pursue that curiosity

Your comments to colleagues must be focused, specific, and constructive

You must demonstrate leadership abilities small group discussion, but balance this with an awareness that the quality(rather than the quantity)of speaking and writing completed in a term is the real hallmark of excellence.

The free-software movement is driving legions of programmers to create thousands of open-source projects, including operating systems. Sites like http://freshmeat.net/ and http://distrowatch.com/ provide portals to many of these projects. As we stated earlier, open-source projects enable students to use source code as a learning tool. They can modify programs

Finally, blade servers are systems in which multiple processor boards, I/O boards, and networking boards are placed in the same chassis. The difference between these and traditional multiprocessor systems is that each blade-processor board boots independently and runs its own operating system. Some blade-server boards are multiprocessor as well, which blurs the lines between types of computers. In essence, these servers consist of multiple independent multiprocessor systems.

A potential drawback with a NUMA system is increased latency when a CPU must access remote memory across the system interconnect, creating a possible performance penalty. In other words, for example, CPU0 cannot access the local memory of CPU3 as quickly as it can access its own local memory, slowing down performance. Operating systems can minimize this NUMA penalty through careful CPU scheduling and memory management, as discussed in Section 5.5.2 and Section 10.5.4. Because NUMA systems can scale to accommodate a large number of processors, they are becoming increasingly popular on servers as well as high-performance computing systems.

Adding additional CPUs to a multiprocessor system will increase computing power; however, as suggested earlier, the concept does not scale very well, and once we add too many CPUs, contention for the system bus becomes a bottleneck and performance begins to degrade. An alternative approach is instead to provide each CPU (or group of CPUs) with its own local memory that is accessed via a small, fast local bus. The CPUs are connected by a shared system interconnect, so that all CPUs share one physical address space. This approach—known as non-uniform memory access, or NUMA—is illustrated in Figure 1.10. The advantage is that, when a CPU accesses its local memory, not only is it fast, but there is also no contention over the system interconnect. Thus, NUMA systems can scale more effectively as more processors are added.

In Figure 1.9, we show a dual-core design with two cores on the same processor chip. In this design, each core has its own register set, as well as its own local cache, often known as a level 1, or L1, cache. Notice, too, that a level 2 (L2) cache is local to the chip but is shared by the two processing cores. Most architectures adopt this approach, combining local and shared caches, where local, lower-level caches are generally smaller and faster than higher-level shared caches. Aside from architectural considerations, such as cache, memory, and bus contention, a multicore processor with N cores appears to the operating system as N standard CPUs. This characteristic puts pressure on operating-system designers—and application programmers—to make efficient use of these processing cores, an issue we pursue in Chapter 4. Virtually all modern operating systems—including Windows, macOS, and Linux, as well as Android and iOS mobile systems—support multicore SMP systems.

The definition of multiprocessor has evolved over time and now includes multicore systems, in which multiple computing cores reside on a single chip. Multicore systems can be more efficient than multiple chips with single cores because on-chip communication is faster than between-chip communication. In addition, one chip with multiple cores uses significantly less power than multiple single-core chips, an important issue for mobile devices as well as laptops.

The benefit of this model is that many processes can run simultaneously—N processes can run if there are N CPUs—without causing performance to deteriorate significantly. However, since the CPUs are separate, one may be sitting idle while another is overloaded, resulting in inefficiencies. These inefficiencies can be avoided if the processors share certain data structures. A multiprocessor system of this form will allow processes and resources—such as memory—to be shared dynamically among the various processors and can lower the workload variance among the processors. Such a system must be written carefully, as we shall see in Chapter 5 and Chapter 6.

The most common multiprocessor systems use symmetric multiprocessing (SMP), in which each peer CPU processor performs all tasks, including operating-system functions and user processes. Figure 1.8 illustrates a typical SMP architecture with two processors, each with its own CPU. Notice that each CPU processor has its own set of registers, as well as a private—or local—cache. However, all processors share physical memory over the system bus.

On modern computers, from mobile devices to servers, multiprocessor systems now dominate the landscape of computing. Traditionally, such systems have two (or more) processors, each with a single-core CPU. The processors share the computer bus and sometimes the clock, memory, and peripheral devices. The primary advantage of multiprocessor systems is increased throughput. That is, by increasing the number of processors, we expect to get more work done in less time. The speed-up ratio with N processors is not N, however; it is less than N. When multiple processors cooperate on a task, a certain amount of overhead is incurred in keeping all the parts working correctly. This overhead, plus contention for shared resources, lowers the expected gain from additional processors.

All of these special-purpose processors run a limited instruction set and do not run processes. Sometimes, they are managed by the operating system, in that the operating system sends them information about their next task and monitors their status. For example, a disk-controller microprocessor receives a sequence of requests from the main CPU core and implements its own disk queue and scheduling algorithm. This arrangement relieves the main CPU of the overhead of disk scheduling. PCs contain a microprocessor in the keyboard to convert the keystrokes into codes to be sent to the CPU. In other systems or circumstances, special-purpose processors are low-level components built into the hardware. The operating system cannot communicate with these processors; they do their jobs autonomously. The use of special-purpose microprocessors is common and does not turn a single-processor system into a multiprocessor. If there is only one general-purpose CPU with a single processing core, then the system is a single-processor system. According to this definition, however, very few contemporary computer systems are single-processor systems.

Many years ago, most computer systems used a single processor containing one CPU with a single processing core. The core is the component that executes instructions and registers for storing data locally. The one main CPU with its core is capable of executing a general-purpose instruction set, including instructions from processes. These systems have other special-purpose processors as well. They may come in the form of device-specific processors, such as disk, keyboard, and graphics controllers.

Interrupts are an important part of a computer architecture. Each computer design has its own interrupt mechanism, but several functions are common. The interrupt must transfer control to the appropriate interrupt service routine. The straightforward method for managing this transfer would be to invoke a generic routine to examine the interrupt information. The routine, in turn, would call the interrupt-specific handler. However, interrupts must be handled quickly, as they occur very frequently. A table of pointers to interrupt routines can be used instead to provide the necessary speed. The interrupt routine is called indirectly through the table, with no intermediate routine needed. Generally, the table of pointers is stored in low memory (the first hundred or so locations). These locations hold the addresses of the interrupt service routines for the various devices. This array, or interrupt vector, of addresses is then indexed by a unique number, given with the interrupt request, to provide the address of the interrupt service routine for the interrupting device. Operating systems as different as Windows and UNIX dispatch interrupts in this manner.

In Section 1.2, we introduced the general structure of a typical computer system. A computer system can be organized in a number of different ways, which we can categorize roughly according to the number of general-purpose processors used.

Recall from the beginning of this section that a general-purpose computer system consists of multiple devices, all of which exchange data via a common bus. The form of interrupt-driven I/O described in Section 1.2.1 is fine for moving small amounts of data but can produce high overhead when used for bulk data movement such as NVS I/O. To solve this problem, direct memory access (DMA) is used. After setting up buffers, pointers, and counters for the I/O device, the device controller transfers an entire block of data directly to or from the device and main memory, with no intervention by the CPU. Only one interrupt is generated per block, to tell the device driver that the operation has completed, rather than the one interrupt per byte generated for low-speed devices. While the device controller is performing these operations, the CPU is available to accomplish other work.

A large portion of operating system code is dedicated to managing I/O, both because of its importance to the reliability and performance of a system and because of the varying nature of the devices.

The design of a complete storage system must balance all the factors just discussed: it must use only as much expensive memory as necessary while providing as much inexpensive, nonvolatile storage as possible. Caches can be installed to improve performance where a large disparity in access time or transfer rate exists between two components.

Electrical. A few examples of such storage systems are flash memory, FRAM, NRAM, and SSD. Electrical storage will be referred to as NVM. If we need to emphasize a particular type of electrical storage device (for example, SSD), we will do so explicitly.

Mechanical. A few examples of such storage systems are HDDs, optical disks, holographic storage, and magnetic tape. If we need to emphasize a particular type of mechanical storage device (for example, magnetic tape), we will do so explicitly.

The top four levels of memory in the figure are constructed using semiconductor memory, which consists of semiconductor-based electronic circuits. NVM devices, at the fourth level, have several variants but in general are faster than hard disks. The most common form of NVM device is flash memory, which is popular in mobile devices such as smartphones and tablets. Increasingly, flash memory is being used for long-term storage on laptops, desktops, and servers as well.

The wide variety of storage systems can be organized in a hierarchy (Figure 1.6) according to storage capacity and access time. As a general rule, there is a trade-off between size and speed, with smaller and faster memory closer to the CPU. As shown in the figure, in addition to differing in speed and capacity, the various storage systems are either volatile or nonvolatile. Volatile storage, as mentioned earlier, loses its contents when the power to the device is removed, so data must be written to nonvolatile storage for safekeeping.

In a larger sense, however, the storage structure that we have described—consisting of registers, main memory, and secondary storage—is only one of many possible storage system designs. Other possible components include cache memory, CD-ROM or blu-ray, magnetic tapes, and so on. Those that are slow enough and large enough that they are used only for special purposes—to store backup copies of material stored on other devices, for example—are called tertiary storage. Each storage system provides the basic functions of storing a datum and holding that datum until it is retrieved at a later time. The main differences among the various storage systems lie in speed, size, and volatility.

All forms of memory provide an array of bytes. Each byte has its own address. Interaction is achieved through a sequence of load or store instructions to specific memory addresses. The load instruction moves a byte or word from main memory to an internal register within the CPU, whereas the store instruction moves the content of a register to main memory. Aside from explicit loads and stores, the CPU automatically loads instructions from main memory for execution from the location stored in the program counter.

Computers use other forms of memory as well. For example, the first program to run on computer power-on is a bootstrap program, which then loads the operating system. Since RAM is volatile—loses its content when power is turned off or otherwise lost—we cannot trust it to hold the bootstrap program. Instead, for this and some other purposes, the computer uses electrically erasable programmable read-only memory (EEPROM) and other forms of firmware—storage that is infrequently written to and is nonvolatile. EEPROM can be changed but cannot be changed frequently. In addition, it is low speed, and so it contains mostly static programs and data that aren't frequently used. For example, the iPhone uses EEPROM to store serial numbers and hardware information about the device.

The CPU can load instructions only from memory, so any programs must first be loaded into memory to run. General-purpose computers run most of their programs from rewritable memory, called main memory (also called random-access memory, or RAM). Main memory commonly is implemented in a semiconductor technology called dynamic random-access memory (DRAM).

In summary, interrupts are used throughout modern operating systems to handle asynchronous events (and for other purposes we will discuss throughout the text). Device controllers and hardware faults raise interrupts. To enable the most urgent work to be done first, modern computers use a system of interrupt priorities. Because interrupts are used so heavily for time-sensitive processing, efficient interrupt handling is required for good system performance.

The interrupt mechanism also implements a system of interrupt priority levels. These levels enable the CPU to defer the handling of low-priority interrupts without masking all interrupts and makes it possible for a high-priority interrupt to preempt the execution of a low-priority interrupt.

Recall that the purpose of a vectored interrupt mechanism is to reduce the need for a single interrupt handler to search all possible sources of interrupts to determine which one needs service. In practice, however, computers have more devices (and, hence, interrupt handlers) than they have address elements in the interrupt vector. A common way to solve this problem is to use interrupt chaining, in which each element in the interrupt vector points to the head of a list of interrupt handlers. When an interrupt is raised, the handlers on the corresponding list are called one by one, until one is found that can service the request. This structure is a compromise between the overhead of a huge interrupt table and the inefficiency of dispatching to a single interrupt handler.

The basic interrupt mechanism works as follows. The CPU hardware has a wire called the interrupt-request line that the CPU senses after executing every instruction. When the CPU detects that a controller has asserted a signal on the interrupt-request line, it reads the interrupt number and jumps to the interrupt-handler routine by using that interrupt number as an index into the interrupt vector. It then starts execution at the address associated with that index. The interrupt handler saves any state it will be changing during its operation, determines the cause of the interrupt, performs the necessary processing, performs a state restore, and executes a return_from_interrupt instruction to return the CPU to the execution state prior to the interrupt. We say that the device controller raises an interrupt by asserting a signal on the interrupt request line, the CPU catches the interrupt and dispatches it to the interrupt handler, and the handler clears the interrupt by servicing the device. Figure 1.4 summarizes the interrupt-driven I/O cycle.

The interrupt architecture must also save the state information of whatever was interrupted, so that it can restore this information after servicing the interrupt. If the interrupt routine needs to modify the processor state—for instance, by modifying register values—it must explicitly save the current state and then restore that state before returning. After the interrupt is serviced, the saved return address is loaded into the program counter, and the interrupted computation resumes as though the interrupt had not occurred.

When the CPU is interrupted, it stops what it is doing and immediately transfers execution to a fixed location. The fixed location usually contains the starting address where the service routine for the interrupt is located. The interrupt service routine executes; on completion, the CPU resumes the interrupted computation. A timeline of this operation is shown in Figure 1.3.

Hardware may trigger an interrupt at any time by sending a signal to the CPU, usually by way of the system bus. (There may be many buses within a computer system, but the system bus is the main communications path between the major components.) Interrupts are used for many other purposes as well and are a key part of how operating systems and hardware interact.

Consider a typical computer operation: a program performing I/O. To start an I/O operation, the device driver loads the appropriate registers in the device controller. The device controller, in turn, examines the contents of these registers to determine what action to take (such as “read a character from the keyboard”). The controller starts the transfer of data from the device to its local buffer. Once the transfer of data is complete, the device controller informs the device driver that it has finished its operation. The device driver then gives control to other parts of the operating system, possibly returning the data or a pointer to the data if the operation was a read. For other operations, the device driver returns status information such as “write completed successfully” or “device busy”. But how does the controller inform the device driver that it has finished its operation? This is accomplished via an interrupt.

In the following subsections, we describe some basics of how such a system operates, focusing on three key aspects of the system. We start with interrupts, which alert the CPU to events that require attention. We then discuss storage structure and I/O structure.

Typically, operating systems have a device driver for each device controller. This device driver understands the device controller and provides the rest of the operating system with a uniform interface to the device. The CPU and the device controllers can execute in parallel, competing for memory cycles. To ensure orderly access to the shared memory, a memory controller synchronizes access to the memory.

Today, however, if we look at operating systems for mobile devices, we see that once again the number of features constituting the operating system is increasing. Mobile operating systems often include not only a core kernel but also middleware—a set of software frameworks that provide additional services to application developers. For example, each of the two most prominent mobile operating systems—Apple's IOS and Google's Android—features a core kernel along with middleware that supports databases, multimedia, and graphics (to name only a few).

The matter of what constitutes an operating system became increasingly important as personal computers became more widespread and operating systems grew increasingly sophisticated. In 1998, the United States Department of Justice filed suit against Microsoft, in essence claiming that Microsoft included too much functionality in its operating systems and thus prevented application vendors from competing. (For example, a web browser was an integral part of Microsoft's operating systems.) As a result, Microsoft was found guilty of using its operating-system monopoly to limit competition.

In addition, we have no universally accepted definition of what is part of the operating system. A simple viewpoint is that it includes everything a vendor ships when you order “the operating system.” The features included, however, vary greatly across systems. Some systems take up less than a megabyte of space and lack even a full-screen editor, whereas others require gigabytes of space and are based entirely on graphical windowing systems. A more common definition, and the one that we usually follow, is that the operating system is the one program running at all times on the computer—usually called the kernel. Along with the kernel, there are two other types of programs: system programs, which are associated with the operating system but are not necessarily part of the kernel, and application programs, which include all programs not associated with the operation of the system.

How, then, can we define what an operating system is? In general, we have no completely adequate definition of an operating system. Operating systems exist because they offer a reasonable way to solve the problem of creating a usable computing system. The fundamental goal of computer systems is to execute programs and to make solving user problems easier. Computer hardware is constructed toward this goal. Since bare hardware alone is not particularly easy to use, application programs are developed. These programs require certain common operations, such as those controlling the I/O devices. The common functions of controlling and allocating resources are then brought together into one piece of software: the operating system.

To explain this diversity, we can turn to the history of computers. Although computers have a relatively short history, they have evolved rapidly. Computing started as an experiment to determine what could be done and quickly moved to fixed-purpose systems for military uses, such as code breaking and trajectory plotting, and governmental uses, such as census calculation. Those early computers evolved into general-purpose, multifunction mainframes, and that's when operating systems were born. In the 1960s, Moore's Law predicted that the number of transistors on an integrated circuit would double every 18 months, and that prediction has held true. Computers gained in functionality and shrank in size, leading to a vast number of uses and a vast number and variety of operating systems. (See Appendix A for more details on the history of operating systems.)

By now, you can probably see that the term operating system covers many roles and functions. That is the case, at least in part, because of the myriad designs and uses of computers. Computers are present within toasters, cars, ships, spacecraft, homes, and businesses. They are the basis for game machines, cable TV tuners, and industrial control systems.

A slightly different view of an operating system emphasizes the need to control the various I/O devices and user programs. An operating system is a control program. A control program manages the execution of user programs to prevent errors and improper use of the computer. It is especially concerned with the operation and control of I/O devices.

From the computer's point of view, the operating system is the program most intimately involved with the hardware. In this context, we can view an operating system as a resource allocator. A computer system has many resources that may be required to solve a problem: CPU time, memory space, storage space, I/O devices, and so on. The operating system acts as the manager of these resources. Facing numerous and possibly conflicting requests for resources, the operating system must decide how to allocate them to specific programs and users so that it can operate the computer system efficiently and fairly.

Increasingly, many users interact with mobile devices such as smartphones and tablets—devices that are replacing desktop and laptop computer systems for some users. These devices are typically connected to networks through cellular or other wireless technologies. The user interface for mobile computers generally features a touch screen, where the user interacts with the system by pressing and swiping fingers across the screen rather than using a physical keyboard and mouse. Many mobile devices also allow users to interact through a voice recognition interface, such as Apple's Siri.

The user's view of the computer varies according to the interface being used. Many computer users sit with a laptop or in front of a PC consisting of a monitor, keyboard, and mouse. Such a system is designed for one user to monopolize its resources. The goal is to maximize the work (or play) that the user is performing. In this case, the operating system is designed mostly for ease of use, with some attention paid to performance and security and none paid to resource utilization—how various hardware and software resources are shared.

The hardware—the central processing unit (CPU), the memory, and the input/output (I/O) devices—provides the basic computing resources for the system. The application programs—such as word processors, spreadsheets, compilers, and web browsers—define the ways in which these resources are used to solve users' computing problems. The operating system controls the hardware and coordinates its use among the various application programs for the various users.

We begin our discussion by looking at the operating system's role in the overall computer system. A computer system can be divided roughly into four components: the hardware, the operating system, the application programs, and a user (Figure 1.1).

Because an operating system is large and complex, it must be created piece by piece. Each of these pieces should be a well-delineated portion of the system, with carefully defined inputs, outputs, and functions. In this chapter, we provide a general overview of the major components of a contemporary computer system as well as the functions provided by the operating system. Additionally, we cover several topics to help set the stage for the remainder of the text: data structures used in operating systems, computing environments, and open-source and free operating systems.

In order to explore the role of an operating system in a modern computing environment, it is important first to understand the organization and architecture of computer hardware. This includes the CPU, memory, and I/O devices, as well as storage. A fundamental responsibility of an operating system is to allocate these resources to programs.

procede de la intención de alterar la naturaleza tripartita delsigno para hacer de la notación el puro encuentro de un objeto yde su expresión.

ilusión referencial

lo «real» estaba del lado de la Historia;pero era para oponerse mejor a lo verosímil, es decir, al ordenmismo del relato (de la imitación o «poesía»

Todo esto dice que se considera a lo «real» como autosu-ficiente, que es lo bastante fuerte como para desmentir toda ideade «función», que su' enunciación no tiene ninguna necesidadde ser integrada en una estructura y que el haber-estado-allí es unprincipio suficiente de la palabra.

vértigo de la notación

la finalidad estética de la descripción flaubertianaestá totalmente impregnada de imperativos «realistas», como si enapariencia la exactitud del referente, superior o indiferente a todaotra función, gobernara y justificara, ella sola, el describirlo o—en el caso de las descripciones reducidas a una palabra— eldenotarlo: las exigencias estéticas se impregnan aquí —al menosa título de coartada—: de exipencias referenciales

el escritor cumple aquí la definición que Platón da del artista:un hacedor en tercer grado, puesto que él imita lo que es ya lacopia de una esencia."

lo verosímil no es aquí referen-cial sino abiertamente discursivo: son las reglas genéricas del dis-curso las que dictan la ley

¿cuál es endefinitiva —si se nos permite la expresión— la significación deesta insignificancia?

La des-cripción aparece así como una suerte de «particularidad» de loslenguajes llamados superiores, en la medida, aparentemente para-doja!, en que no es justificada por ninguna finalidad de accióno de comunicación

oposición que antropológicamente tiene su importancia

la descripción, ésta no tiene ninguna marcapredictiva; en tanto «analógica», su estructura es puramente su-matoria y no contiene ese trayecto de elección y de alternativa queda a la narración el perfil de un amplio dispatching, provisto deuna temporalidad referencial (y ya no sólo discursiva)

La notación insignificante

el análisis estructural, ordinariamenteocupado hasta hoy en separar y sistematizar las grandes articu-laciones del relato, deja de lado, sea porque excluyen del inventa-rio (no hablando de ellos) todos los detalles «superfluos» (enrelación con la estructura), sea porque se tratan a estos mismosdetalles (el propio autor de estas líneas lo ha intentado)8 como«rellenos» (catálisis), afectados de un valor funcional indirecto, enla medida en que, al sumarse, constituyen algún indicio de carác-ter o de atmósfera y pueden ser así finalmente recuperados por laestructura.

ipotiposis

Los residuos irreductibles del análisis funcional tienen esto encomún: denotar lo que corrientemente se llama lo «real concreto»(pequeños gestos, actitudes transitorias, objetos insignificantes, pa-labras redundantes)

Storytelling is relating a tale to one or more listeners through voice and gesture. It is not the same as reading a story aloud or reciting a piece from memory or acting out a drama—though it shares common characteristics with these arts. The storyteller looks into the eyes of the audience and together they co-create the experience of the tale. The storyteller begins to see and recreate, through voice and gesture, a series of mental images; the audience, from the first moment of listening, squints, stares, smiles, leans forward, or falls asleep, letting the teller know whether to slow down, speed up, elaborate, or just finish.

“Insofar as we account for our own actions and for the human events that occur around us principally in terms of narrative, story, drama, it is conceivable that our sensitivity to narrative provides the major link between our own sense of self and our sense of others in the social world around us”

Storytelling involves appealing to the listening audience. “Entertainment is a requirement for successful storytelling. No story works without it; otherwise it becomes a lecture” (Spaulding, 2011, p. 4). In a very real way, the act of telling is a performative act. What is meant here is that the act of telling is different than giving a speech or lecture because the performative event (Bauman, 1975) is a unique experience. It is a practice that depends on direct connection between the teller and the listener. The direction of the story can change from the way the listener reacts or the teller shares the story.

Storytelling is part and parcel of human socialization—a tool for making us known, both to ourselves and to others. In fact, anything we experience that does not get structured narratively does not get remembered

Competition – ruthless, unforgiving, to-the-death competition – is a crucialfeature of capitalism. It opens up new opportunities for individual firms: they canexpand revenues and profits by winning a larger share of sales from competitors.But competition also poses new challenges, since other companies are trying todo exactly the same thing: namely, grow their own market share at the expense oftheir competitors. Therefore, it’s not just greed that motivates company efforts tominimize costs and maximize profits; with competition, it’s also fear. If a companycan’t stand up to the competition, it’s not just that they won’t make quite as muchprofit as other companies. Far worse, eventually they will be destroyed by thesecompeting firms producing better products at lower cost.

The previous chapters of Part Two introduced the major actors in the economyand their assigned tasks. This chapter now fits them all together in a circular loopthat reflects the repeating cycle of the economy: work, production (using tools),income distribution, consumption, and reproduction. These are the core functionsand relationships that make up capitalism. We’ll even draw a simple map of thiscircular system. We’ll call this map the “little circle.” In later chapters, this map willget bigger as we consider more of capitalism’s real-world complexity (includingthe roles of competition, the environment, banks, government, and globalization)

Mas los árboles no son “árboles” hasta que se los nombra y contempla, y nunca se los designó así hasta que hubo aquellos que desplegaron el intrincado aliento del lenguaje, débil eco y borrosa imagen del mundo,

necesitamos limpiar los cristales de nuestras ventanas para que las cosas que alcanzamos a ver queden libres de la monotonía del empañado cotidiano o familiar; y de nuestro afán de posesión.

Crear un Mundo Secundario en el que un sol verde resulte admisible, imponiendo una Creencia Secundaria, ha de requerir con toda certeza esfuerzo e intelecto, y ha de exigir una habilidad especial, algo así como la destreza élfica.

En este sentido, la fantasía no es, creo yo, una manifestación menor sino más elevada, del Arte, casi su forma más pura, y por ello -cuando se alcanza- la más poderosa.

la intención de combinar su uso más tradicional y elevado (equivalente a Imaginación) con las nociones derivadas de “irrealidad” (o sea, disimilitud con el Mundo Primario) y liberación de la esclavitud del “hecho” observado

En mi opinión, se tiene muy poco en cuenta este aspecto de la “mitología”: subcreación más que representación o que interpretación simbólica de las bellezas y los terrores del mundo.

…La mente humana, dotada de los poderes de generalización y abstracción, no sólo ve hierba verde, diferenciándola de otras cosas (y hallándola agradable a la vista), sino que ve que es verde, además de verla como hierba.

La definición de un cuento de hadas -qué es o qué debiera ser- no depende, pues, de ninguna definición ni de ningún relato histórico de elfos o de hadas, sino de la naturaleza de Fantasía: el Reino Peligroso mismo y que sopla en ese país.

el acentose desplaza de la que para los griegos era la esencia de laobra, es decir, el hecho de que algo en ella llegase al serdesde el no-ser, abriendo así el espacio de la verdad ( a —Atj 0eia) y edificando un mundo para el habitar del hombresobre la tierra, al operari del artista, esto es, al genio creativoy a las particulares características del proceso artístico enlas que encuentra expresión.

Cuando este proceso se lleva a cabo en la épocamoderna, cualquier posibilidad de distinguir entrepoiesis ypraxis se desvanece. El «hacer» del hombre se determinacomo actividad productora de un efecto real (el opus deloperari, el factum del facere, el actus del agere), cuyo valor seaprecia en función de la voluntad que en ella se expresa, esdecir, en relación con su libertad y su creatividad. La experiencia central de la poiesis, la pro-ducción hacia la presencia, cede ahora su sitio a la consideración del «cómo», o sea,del proceso a través del que se ha producido el objeto.

no era nadamás que el principio del movimiento (la voluntad, entendida como unidad de apetito, deseo, volición) que caracteriza la vida

en el centro de la praxis estaba, comoveremos, la idea de la voluntad que se expresa inmediatamente en la acción, la experiencia que estaba en el centrode la poiesis era la pro-ducción hacia la presencia, es decir, elhecho de que, en ella, algo pasase del no-ser al ser, de laocultación a la plena luz de la obra.

distinguíanclaramente entre poiesis (poiein, pro-ducir, en el sentido dellevar a ser) y praxis (prattein, hacer, en el sentido de realizar)

Esta actividad productiva, en nuestro tiempo, se entiende como práctica. Según la opinión habitual, todo el hacer del hombre— tanto el del artista y el del artesano, como el del obrero oel del hombre político— es práctica, es decir: manifestación de una voluntad productora de un efecto concreto.

During [Sigmund] Freud’s university years (the late1870s and early 1880s), young enthusiasts in thefuzzier disciplines, such as psychology, liked to bor-row terminology from the more rigorous and estab-lished field of mechanical physics. The borrowedterms became, in fact, metaphor; and metaphor, likea shrewd servant, has a way of ruling its master. Thus,Freud wound up with the idea that libido or sexual“energy,” as he called it, is a pressure that builds upwithin a closed system to the point where it demandsrelease, as in a steam engine

“Filling in Frameworks” wrestles with the misconceptionthat economics is a science. This section looks at the difficul-ties that economists face in trying to adopt scientific methods. Isuggest that economics differs from the natural sciences in thatwe have to rely much less on verifiable hypotheses and muchmore on hard-to-verify interpretative frameworks. Economicanalysis is a challenge, because judging interpretive frame-works is actually harder than verifying scientific hypotheses.

If they are based on a small number of observations, it can be misleading to label the pie slices with percentages.

personality is shaped by the goodness of fit between the child’s temperamental qualities and characteristics of the environment

infants show an awareness that even though they are uncertain about the unfamiliar situation, their mother is not, and that by “reading” the emotion in her face, infants can learn about whether the circumstance is safe or dangerous, and how to respond.

“Only the wisest and stupidest of men never change.”

The Chinese economy produced one quarter of the world’s gross domestic product (GDP) in 1500, followed by India which produced nearly another quarter. In comparison, the fourteen nations of western Europe produced just about half of China’s GDP or only one-eight of the global total production. The largest European economy, in Italy, produced only about one-sixth of China’s output.

The Chinese, who valued silver higher than gold, called this the silver rule. Confucian social morality is based on this reciprocity and on empathy and understanding others rather than on divinely ordained rules.

The imperial courts sent thousands of highly-educated administrators throughout the empire and China was ruled not by hereditary nobles or even elected representatives, but by a class of men who had received rigorous training and had passed very stringent examinations to prove themselves qualified to lead.

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