This line reflects romanticism by using nature to express personal feelings. the lilacs symbolize both beauty and morning, showing how the natural world can help us proceed grief. This connection to nature and emotion is a key aspect of Romanticism, highlighting how our surroundings can deeply influence our inner experiences.

In the line "O singer bashful and tender, I hear your notes, I hear your call" from Walt Whitman's "When Lilacs Last in the Dooryard Bloom'd," the speaker addresses the "singer" as a symbol of both mourning and beauty. The adjectives "bashful" and "tender" evoke a sense of vulnerability and fragility, suggesting that the song of the singer—likely representing Abraham Lincoln or a broader embodiment of loss—is both poignant and gentle. This duality reflects the complexities of grief, where the beauty of memory intertwines with sorrow. The repetition of "I hear" emphasizes the speaker’s deep connection to this voice, suggesting that the act of listening becomes an essential part of processing grief. This line encapsulates the overarching theme of the poem: the interplay between loss and the enduring power of remembrance. In a world marked by violence and tragedy, the tender notes serve as a reminder of the beauty that persists even amidst profound sorrow.

Author response:

The following is the authors’ response to the original reviews.

Public Reviews: 

Reviewer #1 (Public Review): 

Summary: 

The present study's main aim is to investigate the mechanism of how VirR controls the magnitude of MEV release in Mtb. The authors used various techniques, including genetics, transcriptomics, proteomics, and ultrastructural and biochemical methods. Several observations were made to link VirR-mediated vesiculogenesis with PG metabolism, lipid metabolism, and cell wall permeability. Finally, the authors presented evidence of a direct physical interaction of VirR with the LCP proteins involved in linking PG with AG, providing clues that VirR might act as a scaffold for LCP proteins and remodel the cell wall of Mtb. Since the Mtb cell wall provides a formidable anatomical barrier for the entry of antibiotics, targeting VirR might weaken the permeability of the pathogen along with the stimulation of the immune system due to enhanced vesiculogenesis. Therefore, VirR could be an excellent drug target. Overall, the study is an essential area of TB biology.

We thank the reviewer for the kind assessment of our paper.  

Strengths: 

The authors have done a commendable job of comprehensively examining the phenotypes associated with the VirR mutant using various techniques. Application of Cryo-EM technology confirmed increased thickness and altered arrangement of CM-L1 layer. The authors also confirmed that increased vesicle release in the mutant was not due to cell lysis, which contrasts with studies in other bacterial species. 

Another strength of the manuscript is that biochemical experiments show altered permeability and PG turnover in the mutant, which fits with later experiments where authors provide evidence of a direct physical interaction of VirR with LCP proteins. 

Transcriptomics and proteomics data were helpful in making connections with lipid metabolism, which the authors confirmed by analyzing the lipids and metabolites of the mutant. 

Lastly, using three approaches, the authors confirm that VirR interacts with LCP proteins in Mtb via the LytR_C terminal domain. 

Altogether, the work is comprehensive, experiments are designed well, and conclusions are made based on the data generated after verification using multiple complementary approaches.

We are glad that this reviewer finds our study of interest and well designed.   

Weaknesses: 

(1) The major weakness is that the mechanism of VirR-mediated EV release remains enigmatic. Most of the findings are observational and only associate enhanced vesiculogenesis observed in the VirR mutant with cell wall permeability and PG metabolism. The authors suggest that EV release occurs during cell division when PG is most fragile. However, this has yet to be tested in the manuscript - the AFM of the VirR mutant, which produces thicker PG with more pore density, displays enhanced vesiculogenesis. No evidence was presented to show that the PG of the mutant is fragile, and there are differences in cell division to explain increased vesiculogenesis. These observations, counterintuitive to the authors' hypothesis, need detailed experimental verification.

We concur with the reviewer that we do not have direct evidence showing a more fragile PG in the virR mutant and our statement is supported by a compendium of different results. However, this statement is framed in the discussion section as a possible scenario, acknowledging that more experiments are needed to make such connection. Nevertheless, we provide additional data on the molecular characterization of virRmut PG using MS to show a significant increase in the abundance of deacetylated muropeptides, a feature that has been linked to altered lysozyme sensitivity in other unrelated Gram-positive bacteria

(Fig 8 G,H).  

(2.1) Transcriptomic data only adds a little substantial. Transcriptomic data do not correlate with the proteomics data. It remains unclear how VirR deregulates transcription. 

We concur with the reviewer that information provided by transcriptomics and proteomics is a bit fragmented and, taking into consideration the low correlation between both datasets, it does not help to explain the phenotype observed in the mutant. This issue has also been raised by another reviewer so, we have paid special attention to that. 

To refine the biological interpretation of the transcriptomic data we have integrated the complemented strain (virRmut-Comp) in our analyses. This led us to narrow down the virR-dependent transcriptomics signature to the sets of genes that appear simultaneously deregulated in virRmut with respect to both WT and complemented strain in either direction. Furthermore, to identify the transcription factors whose regulatory activity appear disrupted in the mutant strain, we have resorted to an external dataset (Minch et al. 2015) and found a set of 10 transcriptional regulators whose regulons appear significantly impacted in the virRmut strain. While admittedly these improvements do not fully address the question tackled by the reviewer, we found that they contribute to a more precise characterization of the VirR-dependent transcriptional signatures, as well as the regulons, in the genome-wide transcriptional regulatory network of the pathogen that appear altered because of virR disruption. We acknowledge that the lack of correlation between whole-cell lysates proteomics and transcriptomic data is something intriguing, albeit not uncommon in Mycobacterium tuberculosis. However, differences in the protein cargo of the vesicles from different strains share key pathways in common with the transcriptomic analyses, such as the enrichments in cell wall biogenesis and peptidoglycan biosynthesis that are observed both among genes that are downregulated in both cases in virRmut.

(2.2) TLCs of lipids are not quantitative. For example, the TLC image of PDIM is poor; quantitative estimation needs metabolic labeling of lipids with radioactive precursors. Further, change in PDIMs is likely to affect other lipids (SL-1, PAT/DAT) that share a common precursor (propionyl- CoA).

We also agree with the reviewer that TLC, as it is, it is not quantitative. However, we do not have access to radioactive procedures. In the new version of the manuscript, we have run TLCs on all the strains tested to resolve SLs and PAT/DATs (Fig S8). Our results show a reduction in the pool of SL and DATs in the mutant, indicating that part of the methylmalonil pool is diverted to the synthesis of PDIMs. 

(3) The connection of cholesterol with cell wall permeability is tenuous. Cholesterol will serve as a carbon source and contribute to the biosynthesis of methyl-branched lipids such as PDIM, SL-1, and PAD/DAT. Carbon sources also affect other aspects of physiology (redox, respiration, ATP), which can directly affect permeability and import/export of drugs. Authors should investigate whether restoration of the normal level of permeability and EV release is not due to the maintenance of cell wall lipid balance upon cholesterol exposure of the VirR mutant.

We concur with the reviewer that cholesterol as a sole carbon source is introducing many changes in Mtb cells beside permeability. Consequently, we investigated the virRmut lipid profile upon exposure to either cholesterol or TRZ (Fig S8). Both WT and virRmut-Comp strains were included in the analysis. Polar lipid analysis revealed that either cholesterol or TRZ exposure induced a marked reduction in PIMs and cardiolipin (DPG) levels in virRmut relative to WT or complemented strains (Fig S8A). Analysis of apolar lipids indicated that, relative to glycerol MM, virRmut cultured in the presence of cholesterol or TRZ showed reduced levels of TDM and DATs compared to WT and virRmut-Comp strains (Fig S8B). These results suggest a lack of correlation between modulation of cell permeability by cholesterol and TRZ and lipid levels in the absence of VirR.

Furthermore, about this section, we would like to mention that we have modified the reference used for the annotation of the DosR regulon: moving from the definition of the regulon used in the previous submission (coming from Rustad, el at. PLoS One 3(1), e1502 (2008). The enduring hypoxic response of Mycobacterium tuberculosis) to the more recent characterization of the regulon based on CHiPseq data, reported in Minch et al. 2015. This was done to ensure coherence with the transcriptomics analyses in the new figure 4.

(4) Finally, protein interaction data is based on experiments done once without statistical analysis. If the interaction between VirR and LCP protein is expected on the mycobacterial membrane, how the SPLIT_GFP system expressed in the cytoplasm is physiologically relevant. No explanation was provided as to why VirR interacts with the truncated version of LCP proteins and not with the full-length proteins.

We have repeated the experiments and applied statistics (Figure 9). As stated in the manuscript this assay has successfully been applied to interrogate interactions of domains of proteins embedded in the membrane of mycobacteria. Therefore, we believe that this assay is valid to interrogate interactions between Lcp proteins.

Reviewer #2 (Public Review): 

Summary: 

In this work, Vivian Salgueiro et al. have comprehensively investigated the role of VirR in the vesicle production process in Mtb using state-of-the-art omics, imaging, and several biochemical assays. From the present study, authors have drawn a positive correlation between cell membrane permeability and vesiculogenesis and implicated VirR in affecting membrane permeability, thereby impacting vesiculogenesis. 

Strengths: 

The authors have discovered a critical factor (i.e. membrane permeability) that affects vesicle production and release in Mycobacteria, which can broadly be applied to other bacteria and may be of significant interest to other scientists in the field. Through omics and multiple targeted assays such as targeted metabolomics, PG isolation, analysis of Diaminopimelic acid and glycosyl composition of the cell wall, and, importantly, molecular interactions with PG-AG ligating canonical LCP proteins, the authors have established that VirR is a central scaffold at the cell envelope remodelling process which is critical for MEV production. 

We thank the reviewer for the kind assessment of the paper.

Weaknesses: 

Throughout the study, the authors have utilized a CRISPR knockout of VirR. VirR is a non-essential gene for the growth of Mtb; a null mutant of VirR would have been a better choice for the study. 

According to Tn mutant databases and CRISPR databases, virR is a non-essential gene. However, we have tried to interrupt this gene using the allelic exchange substitution approach via phages many times with no success. So far there is no precedent of a clean KO mutant in this gene. White et al., generated a virR mutant consisting of deletion of a large fragment of the c-terminal part of the protein, pretty much replicating the effect of the Tn insertion site in the virR Tn mutant. These precedents made us to switch to CRISPR technology.  

Recommendations for the authors:

Reviewer #1 (Recommendations For The Authors): 

(1) The authors monitored cell lysis by measuring the release of a cytoplasmic iron-responsive protein (IdeR). Since EV release is regulated by iron starvation, which is directly sensed by IdeR, another control (unrelated to iron) is needed. A much better approach would be to use hydrophobic/hydrophilic probes to measure changes in the cell wall envelope.

Does the VirR complemented strain have a faint IdeR band in the supernatant? The authors need to clarify. Also, it's unclear whether the complementation restored normal VirR levels or not. 

We thank the reviewer for this recommendation. Consequently, we have complemented these studies by an alternative approach based on serially diluted cultures spotted on solid medium. These results align very well with that of western blot using IdeR levels in the supernatant as a surrogate of cell lysis.

We also noticed the presence of a faint IdeR band in the supernatant of the complemented strain and suggestive of a possible cell lysis. However, as shown in other section this was not translated into increased levels of vesiculation. As previously shown in a previous paper describing VirR as a genetic determinant of vesiculogenesis, VirR levels in the complemented strains are not just restored but increased considerably. This overexpression could explain the potential artifact of a leaky phenotype in the complemented strain. In addition to that previous study, the proteomic data included in this paper clearly shows a restoration of VirR levels relative to the WT strains.

(2) Figure 2C: The data are weak; I don't see any difference in incorporating FDAAs in MM media. Even in the 7H9 medium, differences appear only at the last time point (20 h). What happens at the time point after 20 h (e.g., 48 h)? How do we differentiate between defective permeability or anabolism leading to altered PG? No statistical analysis was performed.

We apologize for the incomplete assessment of the results in this figure. First, this figure just shows differential incorporation of FDAAs in the different strains in different media. As per previous studies (Kuru et al (2017) Nat. Protocols), these probes can freely enter into cells and may be incorporated into PG by at least three different mechanisms, depending on the species: through the cytoplasmic steps of PG biosynthesis and via two distinct transpeptidation reactions taking place in the periplasm. Consequently, the differential labeling observed in virRmut relative to WT strain may be a consequence of the enlarge PG observe din the mutant. We have repeated the experiment and created new data. First, we have cultured strains with a blue FDAA (HADA) for 48 to ensure full labeling. Then, we washed cells and cultured in the presence of a second FDAA, this time green (FDL) for 5 h. The differential incorporation of FDL relative to HADA was then measured under the fluorescence microscope. This experiment showed a virRmut incorporate more FDL that the other strains, suggesting an altered PG remodeling.  modified the figure to make clearer the early and late time points of the time-course and applied statistics.

(3) Many genes (~ 1700) were deregulated in the mutant. Since these transcriptional changes do not correlate at the protein level in WCL, it's important to determine VirR-specificity. RNA-Seq of VirR complemented strain is important.

We think this was an extremely important point, and we thank the reviewer for pointing this out. Following their suggestion, we have analyzed and integrated data from the complemented strain, which we have added to the GEO submission, to conclude that, in fact, differences in expression between the complemented strain and either the WT, or virRmut are also common and highly significant. Albeit this is not completely unexpected, given the nature of our mutants and the fact that the complemented strains show significantly higher levels of expression of VirR -both at the RNA and protein levels- than the WT, it motivated us to narrow down our definition of VirR-dependent genes to adopt a combined criterium that integrated the complemented strain. Following this approach, we considered the set of genes upregulated (downregulated) in virRmut as those whose expression in that strain is, at the same time, significantly higher (lower) than in WT as well as in virRmut-Comp. Working with this integrated definition, the genes considered -399 upregulated and 502 downregulated genes- are those whose observed expression changes are more likely to be genuinely VirR-dependent rather than any non-specific consequence of the mutagenesis protocols. Despite the lower number of genes in these sets, the repetition of all our functional enrichment analyses based on this combined criterium leads us to conclusions that are largely compatible with those presented in the first version of the paper.

(4) Transcriptome data provide no clues about how VirR could mediate expression deregulation. Is there an overlap with the regulations/regulons of any Mtb transcription factors? One clue is DosR; however, DosR only regulates 50-60 genes in Mtb. 

Again, we would like to thank the reviewer for this recommendation, which we have followed accordingly to generate a new section in the results named “VirR-dependent genes intersect the regulons of key transcriptional regulators of the responses to stress, dormancy, and cell wall remodeling”. As we explain in this new section, we resorted to the regulon annotations reported in (Minch et al. 2015), where ChIP-seq data is collected on binding events between a panel of 143 transcription factors (TFs) and DNA genome-wide. The dataset includes 7248 binding events between regulators and DNA motifs in the vicinity of targets’ promoters. After completing enrichment analyses with the resulting regulons, we identified 10 transcription factors whose intersections with the sets of up and downregulated genes in virRmut were larger than expected by chance (One tailed Fisher exact test, OR>2, FDR<0.1). Those regulators -which, as guessed by the referee, included DevR-, control key pathways related with cell wall remodeling, stress responses, and transition to dormancy.

(5) How many proteins that are enriched or depleted in the EVs of the VirR mutant also affected transcriptionally in the mutant? How does VirR regulate the abundance and transport of protein in EVs? 

While the intersection between genes and proteins that appear upregulated in the virRmut strain both at transcriptional and vesicular protein levels (N=21) was found larger than expected by chance (OR=2.0 p=7.0E-3), downregulated genes and proteins in virRmut (N=14) were not enriched in each other. These results, indicated, at most, a scarce correlation between RNA and protein levels (a phenomenon nonetheless previously observed in Mycobacterium tuberculosis, among other organisms, see Cortés et al. 2013). Admittedly, the compilation of these omics data is insufficient, by itself to pinpoint the specific regulatory mechanisms through which the absence of VirR impacts protein abundance in EVs. For the sake of transparency, this has been acknowledged in the discussion section of the resubmitted version of the manuscript.

(6) The assumption that a depleted pool of methylmalonyl CoA is due to increased utilization for PDIM biosynthesis is problematic. Without flux-based measurement, we don't know if MMCoA is consumed more or produced less, more so because Acc is repressed in the VirR mutant EVs. Further, MMCoA feeds into the TCA cycle and other methyl-branched lipids. Without data on other lipids and metabolism, the depletion of MMCoA is difficult to explain.

The differential expression statistics compiled suggest that both effects may be at place, since we observed, at the same time, a downregulation of enzymes controlling methylmalonyl synthesis from propionyl-CoA (i.e. Acc, at the protein level), as well as an upregulation of enzymes related with its incorporation into DIM/PDIMs (i.e. pps genes). Both effects, combined, would favor an increased rate of methylmalonyl production, and a slower depletion rate, thus contributing to the higher levels observed. We however concur with the reviewer that fluxomics analyses will contribute to shed light on this question in a more decisive manner, and we have acknowledged this in the discussion section too.   

(7) Figure 5: Deregulation of rubredoxins and copper indicates impaired redox balance and respiration in the mutant. The data is complex to connect with permeability as TRZ is mycobactericidal and also known to affect the respiratory chain. The authors need to investigate if, in addition to permeability, the presence of VirR is essential for maintaining bioenergetics.

The data related to rubredoxins and copper has been modified after reanalyzing transcriptomic data including the complemented strain. Nevertheless, we found that some features of the response to stresses may be impaired in the mutant, including the one to oxidative stress. In this regard, we found the enhanced sensitivity of the mutant to H2O2 relative to WT and complemented strains. This piece of data is now included as Fig S3 in the new version of the manuscript.

(8) Differential regulation of DoS regulon and cholesterol growth could also be linked to differences in metabolism, redox, and respiration. What is the phenotype of VirR mutants in terms of growth and respiration in the presence of cholesterol/TRZ? 

We thank the reviewer for this suggestion. Consequently, we have added a new section to Results that suggest that other aspects of mycobacterial physiology may be affected in the virR mutant when cultured in the presence of cholesterol or TRZ: 

“Modulation of EV levels and permeability in virRmut by cholesterol and TRZ. We next wondered about the effect of culturing virRmut on both cholesterol or TRZ could have on cell growth, permeability and EV production. In the case of cholesterol, it has also been shown to affect other aspects of physiology (redox, respiration, ATP), which can directly affect permeability (Lu et al., 2017). We monitored virRmut growth cultured in MM supplemented with either glycerol, cholesterol as a sole carbon source, and TRZ at 3 ug ml-1 for 20 days. While cholesterol significantly enhanced the growth virRmut after 5 days relative to glycerol medium, supplementation of glycerol medium with TRZ restricted growth during the whole time-course (Fig S5A). The study of cell permeability in the same conditions indicated that the enhanced cell permeability observed in glycerol MM was reduced when virRmut when cultured with cholesterol as sole carbon source. Conversely, the presence of TRZ increased cell permeability relative to the medium containing solely glycerol (Fig S5C). As we have previously observed for the WT strain, either condition (Chol or TRZ) also modified vesiculation levels in the mutant accordingly (Fig S5B). These results strongly indicates that other aspects of mycobacterial physiology besides permeability are also affected in the virR mutant and may contribute to the observed enhanced vesiculation.

(9) PDIM TLC is not evident; both DimA and DImB should be clearly shown. It will also be necessary to show other methyl-branched lipids, such as SL-1 and PAT/DAT, because the increase in PDIM can take away methyl malonyl CoA from the biosynthesis of SL-1 and PAT/DAT. Studies have shown that SLI-, PAT/DAT, and PDIM are tightly regulated, where an increase in one lipid pool can affect the abundance of other lipids. Quantitative assays using 14C acetate/propionate are most appropriate for these experiments. 

We apologize for the fact that TLC analysis is not performed in a radioactive fashion. However, we do not have access to this approach. To answer reviewer question about the fact that other methyl-branched lipids may explain the altered flux of methyl malonyl CoA, we have run TLCs on all the strains tested to resolve SLs and PAT/DATs (Fig S8). Notably, we observed a reduction in the level of these lipids (SL1 or PAT/DAT) in virRmut cultured in glycerol relative to WT and complemented strains, suggesting that the excess of PDIM synthesis can take away methyl malonyl CoA from the biosynthesis of SL-1 and PAT/DAT in the absence of VirR (Fig S8B).

(10) Figure 8: Interaction between VirR and Lcp proteins. Since these interactions are happening in the membrane, using a split GFP system where proteins are expressed in the cytoplasm is unlikely to be relevant.

Also, experiments on Figure 8C are performed once, and representation needs to be clarified; split GFP needs a positive control, and negative control (CtpC) is not indicated in the figure.

We have repeated the experiments and applied statistics (Figure 9). As stated in the manuscript this assay has successfully been applied to interrogate interactions of domains of proteins embedded in the membrane of mycobacteria. Therefore, we believe that this assay is valid to interrogate interactions between Lcp proteins.

Reviewer #2 (Recommendations For The Authors):  

(1) Authors should consider making more effort to mine the omics data and integrate them. Given the amount of data that is generated with the omics, they need to be looked at together to find out threads that connect all of them. 

In the resubmitted version of the paper, we have followed reviewer´s recommendation by incorporating new analyses that integrated the virRmut-C strain, and tried to provide context to the differences found in the context of broader transcriptional regulatory networks (new figure 4), as well as in the context of metabolic pathways related with PDIM biosynthesis from methylmalonyl (figure 6I, already present in the first submission). We consider that these additions contribute to a deeper interpretation of the omics data in the line of what was suggested by the reviewer.

(2) The interpretation given by authors in lines 387-390 is an interpretation that does not have sufficient support and, hence should be moved into discussion. 

We thank the reviewer for this recommendation. We believe that these new analyses and integration studies now support the above statement.

eLife Assessment

In this important study, the authors set out to investigate the biogenesis of extracellular vesicles in mycobacteria and provide several observations to link VirR with vesiculogenesis, PG metabolism, lipid metabolism, and cell wall permeability. Whilst some of the evidence provided is convincing, there are still some shortcomings in the revised manuscript where the data to support the proposed mechanism remain incomplete. The work will be of interest to bacteriologists.

Reviewer #1 (Public review):

Summary:

The present study's main aim is to investigate the mechanism of how VirR controls the magnitude of MEV release in Mtb. The authors used various techniques, including genetics, transcriptomics, proteomics, and ultrastructural and biochemical methods. Several observations were made to link VirR-mediated vesiculogenesis with PG metabolism, lipid metabolism, and cell wall permeability. Finally, the authors presented evidence of a direct physical interaction of VirR with the LCP proteins involved in linking PG with AG, providing clues that VirR might act as a scaffold for LCP proteins and remodel the cell wall of Mtb. Since the Mtb cell wall provides a formidable anatomical barrier for the entry of antibiotics, targeting VirR might weaken the permeability of the pathogen along with the stimulation of the immune system due to enhanced vesiculogenesis. Therefore, VirR could be an excellent drug target. Overall, the study is an essential area of TB biology.

Strengths:

The authors have done a commendable job of comprehensively examining the phenotypes associated with the VirR mutant using various techniques. Application of Cryo-EM technology confirmed increased thickness and altered arrangement of CM-L1 layer. The authors also confirmed that increased vesicle release in the mutant was not due to cell lysis, which contrasts with studies in other bacterial species.

Another strength of the manuscript is that biochemical experiments show altered permeability and PG turnover in the mutant, which fits with later experiments where authors provide evidence of a direct physical interaction of VirR with LCP proteins.

Transcriptomics and proteomics data were helpful in making connections with lipid metabolism, which the authors confirmed by analyzing the lipids and metabolites of the mutant.

Lastly, using three approaches, the authors confirm that VirR interacts with LCP proteins in Mtb via the LytR_C terminal domain.

Altogether, the work is comprehensive, experiments are designed well, and conclusions were made based on the data generated after verification using multiple complementary approaches.

Weaknesses:

The major weakness is that the mechanism of VirR-mediated EV release remains enigmatic. Most of the findings are observational and only associate enhanced vesiculogenesis observed in the VirR mutant with cell wall permeability and PG metabolism. Authors suggest that EV release occurs during cell division when PG is most fragile. However, this has yet to be tested in the manuscript - the AFM of the VirR mutant, which produces thicker PG with more pore density, displays enhanced vesiculogenesis. No evidence was presented to show that the PG of the mutant is fragile, and there are differences in cell division to explain increased vesiculogenesis. These observations, counterintuitive to the authors' hypothesis, need detailed experimental verification.

Transcriptomic data only adds a little substantial. Transcriptomic data do not correlate with the proteomics data. It remains unclear how VirR deregulates transcription. TLCs of lipids are not quantitative. For example, the TLC image of PDIM is poor; quantitative estimation needs metabolic labeling of lipids with radioactive precursors. Further, change in PDIMs is likely to affect other lipids (SL-1, PAT/DAT) that share a common precursor (propionyl- CoA).

The connection of cholesterol with cell wall permeability is tenuous. Cholesterol will serve as a carbon source and contribute to the biosynthesis of methyl-branched lipids such as PDIM, SL-1, and PAD/DAT. Carbon sources also affect other aspects of physiology (redox, respiration, ATP), which can directly affect permeability and import/export of drugs. Authors should investigate whether restoration of the normal level of permeability and EV release is not due to the maintenance of cell wall lipid balance upon cholesterol exposure of the VirR mutant.

Finally, protein interaction data is based on experiments done once without statistical analysis. If the interaction between VirR and LCP protein is expected on the mycobacterial membrane, how SPLIT_GFP system expressed in the cytoplasm is physiologically relevant. No explanation was provided as to why VirR interacts with the truncated version of LCP proteins and not with the full-length proteins.

Reviewer #2 (Public review):

Summary:

In this work, Vivian Salgueiro et al. have comprehensively investigated the role of VirR in the vesicle production process in Mtb using state-of-the-art omics, imaging, and several biochemical assays. From the present study, authors have drawn a positive correlation between cell membrane permeability and vasculogenesis and implicated VirR in affecting membrane permeability, thereby impacting vasculogenesis.

Strengths:

The authors have discovered a critical factor (i.e. membrane permeability) that affects vesicle production and release in Mycobacteria, which can broadly be applied to other bacteria and may be of significant interest to other scientists in the field. Through omics and multiple targeted assays such as targeted metabolomics, PG isolation, analysis of Diaminopimelic acid and glycosyl composition of the cell wall, and, importantly, molecular interactions with PG-AG ligating canonical LCP proteins, the authors have established that VirR is a central scaffold at the cell envelope remodelling process which is critical for MEV production.

Weaknesses:

Throughout the study, the authors have utilized a CRISPR knockout of VirR. VirR is a non-essential gene for the growth of Mtb; a null mutant of VirR would have been a better choice for the study.

Comments on the revised version:

Concerns flagged about using CRISPR -guide RNA mediated knockdown of viral has yet to be addressed entirely. I understand that the authors could not get knock out despite attempts and hence they have guide RNA mediated knockdown strategy. However, I wondered if the authors looked at the levels of the downstream genes in this knockdown.

Authors have used the virmut-Comp strain for some of the experiments. However, the materials and methods must describe how this strain was generated. Given the mutant is a CRISPR-guide RNA mediated knockdown. The CRISPR construct may have taken up the L5 loci. Did authors use episomal construct for complementation? If so, what is the expression level of virR in the complementation construct? What are the expression levels of downstream genes in mutant and complementation strains? This is important because the transcriptome analysis was redone by considering complementation strain. The complemented strain is written as virmut-C or virmut-Comp. This has to be consistent.

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adoção

eLife Assessment

This fundamental work advances our understanding of the mechanisms underlying lactation-induced infertility. Compelling evidence supports the notion that prolactin inhibits kisspeptin activity and LH pulsatile release and that loss of this signal results in an early reestablishment of fertility during lactation. This work will be of interest to endocrinologists and reproductive biologists.

Reviewer #1 (Public review):

Summary:

In this paper, Hackwell and colleagues performed technically impressive, long-term, GCaMP fiber photometry recordings from Kiss1 neurons in the arcuate nucleus of mice during multiple reproductive states. The data show an immediate suppression of activity of arc Kiss1 neuronal activity during pregnancy that is maintained during lactation. In the absence of any apparent change in suckling stimulus or milk production, mice lacking prolactin receptors in arcuate Kiss1 neurons regained Kiss1 episodic activity and estrous cyclicity faster than control mice, demonstrating that direct prolactin action on Kiss1 neurons is at least partially responsible for suppressing fertility in this species. The effect of loss of prolactin receptors from CamK2a expressing neurons was even greater, indicating either that prolactin sensitivity in Kiss1 neurons of the RP3V contributes to lactational infertility or that other prolactin-sensitive neurons are involved. These data demonstrate the important role of prolactin in suppressing Kiss1 neuron activity and thereby fertility during the lactational period in the mouse.

Strengths:

This is the first study to monitor activity of the GnRH pulse-generating system across different reproductive states in the same animal. Another strength in the study design is that it isolated the effects of prolactin by maintaining normal lactation and suckling (assessed indirectly using pup growth curves). The study also offers insight into the phenomenon of postpartum ovulation in mice. The results showed a brief reactivation of arcuate Kiss1 activity immediately prior to parturition, attributed to falling progesterone levels at the end of pregnancy. This hypothesis will be of interest to the field and is likely to inspire testing in future studies. With the exceptions mentioned below, the conclusions of the paper are well supported by the data and the aims of the study were achieved. This paper is likely to raise the standard for technical expectations in the field and spark new interest in the direct impact of prolactin on Kiss1 neurons during lactation in other species.

Weaknesses:

A weakness in the approach is the use of genetic models that do not offer complete deletion of the prolactin receptor from targeted neuronal populations. A substantial proportion of Kiss1 neurons in both models retains the receptor. As a result, it is not clear whether the partial maintenance of cyclicity during lactation in the genetic models is due to incomplete deletion or to the involvement of other factors. In addition, results showing no impact of progesterone on LH secretion during lactation are surprising, given the effectiveness of progesterone-containing birth control in lactating women. While the authors assert their findings may reflect an important role for prolactin in lactational infertility in other mammalian species, that remains to be seen. Hyperprolactinemia is known to suppress GnRH release, but its importance in the suppression of cyclicity during the lactation is controversial. Indeed, in several species, the stimulus of suckling is considered to be the main driver of lactational fertility suppression. Data from rats shows that exogenous prolactin was unable to suppress LH release in dams deprived of their pups shortly after birth; both suckling and prolactin were necessary to suppress a post-ovariectomy rise in LH levels. The duration of amenorrhea does not correlate with average prolactin levels in humans, and suckling but not prolactin was required to suppress the postpartum rise in LH in the rhesus monkey. The protocol of this or other studies might result in discordant results; alternatively, mice may be an outlier in their mechanism of cycle suppression.

Comments on revised version:

I remain enthusiastic about this article, which has been substantially improved in this revision. However, I didn't feel the authors responded to any of the points I raised previously in my public review (see Weaknesses), for example by adding to the manuscript's discussion section. These are the larger, conceptual issues that speak to the value of the paper in the context of the existing literature. The authors could also state they feel they have addressed the issues raised sufficiently in the text.

Reviewer #2 (Public review):

Summary:

The overall goal of Eleni et al. is to determine if the suppression of LH pulses during lactation is mediated by prolactin signaling at kisspeptin neurons. To address this, the authors used GCaMP fiber photometry and serial blood sampling to reveal that in vivo episodic arcuate kisspeptin neuron activity and LH pulses are suppressed throughout pregnancy and lactation. The authors further utilized knockout models to demonstrate that the loss of prolactin receptor signaling at kisspeptin cells prevents the suppression of kisspeptin cell activity and results in the early reestablishment of fertility during lactation. The work demonstrates exemplary design and technique, and the outcomes of these experiments are sophistically discussed.

Strengths:

This manuscript demonstrates exceptional skill with powerful techniques and reveals a key role for arcuate kisspeptin neurons in maintaining lactation-induced infertility in mice. In a difficult feat, the authors used fiber photometry to map the activity of arcuate kisspeptin cells into lactation and weaning without disrupting parturition, lactation, or maternal behavior. The authors used a knockout approach to identify if the inhibition of fertility by prolactin is mediated via direct signaling at arcuate kisspeptin cells. Although the model does not perfectly eliminate prolactin receptor expression in all kisspeptin neurons, results from the achieved knockdown support the conclusion that prolactin signaling at kisspeptin neurons is required to maintain lactational infertility. The methods are advanced and appropriate for the aims, the study is rigorously conducted, and the conclusions are thoughtfully discussed.

Comments on the latest version:

All comments and suggestions have been addressed by the authors in this revision.

Author response:

The following is the authors’ response to the original reviews.

Reviewer #1 (Recommendations For The Authors):

I recommend being explicit regarding how the animals were habituated to blood sampling.

On lines 109-111 we have added a more detailed explanation of how mice were habituated to blood sampling. This includes details that mice were held and had their tails palpated for approximately 5 minutes per day.

Were any mice excluded due to loss or movement of the implant over time? Any details to allow replication of long-term measurements like this should be included.

No mice lost their cannulas during experimentation so we have added a sentence on this on lines 303 to 304 to this effect.  We have also noted that there was a slight decrease in signal over the months of experimentation. A statement on line 318 has also been added that clarifies two mice lost between the pregnancy and lactation stages of experiment were euthanised due to dystocia.

The text states that synchronized episodic activity reappeared as early as 3 days after birth, citing Figure 6c as evidence. There is no 6c. Figure 6b shows day 5 after birth.

This has been corrected.

The methods state mRNA levels had to be "above background" to be counted as colocalization. At how many fold/what percent above background was a cell considered positive for expression?

Positive hybridisation was scored according to the manufacturer’s protocol and a statement to this effect has been added on line 144.

Please ensure figure titles or the data graphs explicitly give the genotype of the mice in all figures (or state the mice are wildtype).

Genotype has been added to figure titles where possible. Genotypes are always given in figure legends and tables and/or explicitly stated on the figure itself.

Figure 4's title states events are "perfectly" correlated, which is a subjective term. I recommend saying "consistently" or "temporally" correlated, depending on your meaning.

This has been amended to read “consistently correlated”

Reviewer #2 (Recommendations For The Authors):

The comments below aim to clarify the paper's methodology and results but do not detract from my overall enthusiasm for this work.

- Given past studies demonstrating prolactin action in the brain, particularly the MPOA/MPN, is essential for maternal behavior, can the authors please clarify why this behavior is retained in the cam2a prlr knockout mice? The authors mention that prlr in the MPOA is only knocked down 50% compared to WT controls. Is this sufficient to retain maternal behavior?

In our experience 50% Prlr in the MPOA is sufficient to retain normal maternal behaviour in most animals including the ones in this experiment (our original paper describing this showed relatively normal behavior, for example, with a vGAT and vGlut-mediated knockouts, and even a double knockout – it was only when we achieved complete KO with an AAV-Cre that we saw failure of maternal behavior – Brown et al, PNAS 3;114(40):10779-10784 2017). We have added a statement on lines 157-159 regarding this.  We have an additional paper in preparation specifically characterising the maternal behaviour and lactation outcomes in this line of mice, and we find most animals display normal maternal behaviour, with slightly impaired milk production in later lactation.

- Supplementary Figure 1. Can the authors please clarify the criteria for a cell to be positive for prlr? The methods state that the signal must be "above background level." How was the background measurement obtained? In the negative control?

As per above, scoring of positive hydribisation was done according to the manufacturer’s protocol and a statement to this effect has been added on line 144.

- Lines 310-314: This sentence describes RNAscope analysis of prlr knockdown in kisspeptin cells and refers to Extended Figure 3 - but I believe this is in Supplementary Figure 1.

This has been corrected.

- Figure 3-4: When mice return to estrous cycles, the amplitude of episodic kisspeptin neuron activity is the same as 24 hours after weaning, which appears much lower than in virgin females. Does this reach significance? If so, do the authors know why kisspeptin activity is still suppressed, and can they comment on why this may not affect estrous cyclicity?

This does not reach significance – see Supplementary Table 1 (4C) for statistics. Therefore, no further analysis was done. This question would need to be examined with a follow up experiment. Given the 5s on, 15 s off scheduled mode of recording used here, amplitude was not an extremely accurate measure and amplitude has been reported as relative within each mouse. There is also an additional issue of a gradual reduction in amplitude of signal over time in these long-term experiments – although it is true that much larger signals were detected after ovariectomy at the end of the experiment.  At present, we have not tried to interpret whether the changes in amplitude are informative.

- Fiber photometry studies: Please indicate whether a post-mortem examination of GCaMP transfection and fiber photometry placement was conducted, and what region of the ARC was imaged.

Brains from these mice were collected, however postmortem analysis of cannula placement of GCaMP6 transfection was not carried out in all mice. This was based on our experience with this method, in that the quality and characteristic pattern of activity seen, as well as corresponding LH secretion following an SE, was indicative of successful cannula placement and transfection.  Incorrectly placed cannular failed to show SEs. A trial was done with 3 mice and cannula placement was found to be in the caudal ARC (cARC) with GFP (attached to GCaMP) restricted to the cARC. A statement has been added on lines 306-313 regarding this.

- Were male mice removed before birth? Please add to the methods section if not included.

Yes, male mice were removed after a sperm plug was seen and were never present at parturition. We have inserted additional details on line 95 to this effect.

Reviewer #3 (Recommendations For The Authors):

(1) Line 172: n=7-8 per group, yet in Supplementary Figure 2, n=6 per group.

These are referring to different groups of mice. N=7-8 is referring to the group size of mice in Figure 2 that were given mifepristone or vehicle control. In contrast the Supplementary figure 2 n number refers to the mice in the pilot study. Additional n number for the pilot study has been added on line 194.

(2) Line 314: Extended = suppl; Figure 3 = 1.

This has been corrected.

(3) Line 451: Figure 6C, does not exist.

This has been corrected.

Line 590: Reference 23 could be replaced by Ordog T et al 1998 Am J Physiol 274,E665 because it is later and more relevant to the topic.

This reference has been replaced with the suggested reference.

eLife Assessment

In this useful study, Wang and colleagues investigate the potential probiotic effects of Bacillus velezensis in a murine model. They provide convincing evidence that B. velezensis limits the growth of Salmonella typhimurium in lab culture and in mice, together with beneficial effects on the microbiota. The overall presentation of the manuscript has improved and the work will be of interest to infectious disease researchers.

Reviewer #1 (Public review):

Summary:

Wang and colleagues presented an investigation of pig-origin bacteria Bacillus velezensis HBXN2020, for its released genome sequence, in vivo safety issue, probiotic effects in vitro, and protection against Salmonella infection in a murine model. Various techniques and assays are performed; the main results are all descriptive, without new insight advancing the field or a mechanistic understanding of the observed protection.

Strengths:

An extensive study on the probiotic properties of the Bacillus velezensis strain HBXN2020

Weaknesses:

The main results are descriptive without mechanistic insight. Additionally, most of the results and analysis parts are separated without a link or a story-telling way to deliver a concise message.

Now the manuscript has made appropriate and considerable improvements.

Author response:

The following is the authors’ response to the previous reviews.

Reviewer #1 (Public Review):

Summary:

Wang and colleagues presented an investigation of pig-origin bacteria Bacillus velezensis HBXN2020, for its released genome sequence, in vivo safety issue, probiotic effects in vitro, and protection against Salmonella infection in a murine model. Various techniques and assays are performed; the main results are all descriptive, without new insight advancing the field or a mechanistic understanding of the observed protection.

Thank you very much for your reading and comments our manuscript.

Strengths:

An extensive study on probiotic property of the Bacillus velezensis strain HBXN2020

Thank you very much for your reading and comments our manuscript.

Weaknesses:

The main results are descriptive without mechanistic insight. Additionally, most of the results and analysis parts are separated without a link or a story-telling way to deliver a concise message.

Thank you for your comments and suggestions on our manuscript. In later work, we will focus on exploring the antibacterial substances and bactericidal mechanisms of B. velezensis. The manuscript results and analysis sections have been extensively revised. We appreciate your review and feedback.

Reviewer #2 (Public Review):

Summary:

In this study, Wang and colleagues study the potential probiotic effects of Bacillus velezensis. Bacillus species have potential benefit to serve as probiotics due to their ability to form endospores and synthesize secondary metabolites. B. velezensis has been shown to have probiotic effects in plants and animals but data for human use are scarce, particularly with respect to salmonella-induced colitis. In this work, the authors identify a strain of B. velezensis and test it for its ability to control colitis in mice.

Thanks for the constructive comments and the positive reception of the manuscript.

Key findings:

(1) The authors sequence an isolate for B. velezensis - HBXN2020 and describe its genome (roughly 4 mb, 46% GC-content etc).

Thanks for the constructive comments and the positive reception of the manuscript.

(2) The authors next describe the growth of this strain in broth culture and survival under acid and temperature stress. The susceptibility of HBXN2020 was tested against various antibiotics and against various pathogenic bacteria. In the case of the latter, the authors set out to determine if HBXN2020 could directly inhibit the growth of pathogenic bacteria. Convincing data, indicating that this is indeed the case, are presented.

Thanks for the constructive comments and the positive reception of the manuscript.

(3) To determine the safety profile of BHXN2020 (for possible use as a probiotic), the authors infected the strain in mice and monitored weight, together with cytokine profiles. Infected mice displayed no significant weight loss and expression of inflammatory cytokines remained unchanged. Blood cell profiles of infected mice were consistent with that of uninfected mice. No significant differences in tissues, including the colon were observed.

Thanks for the constructive comments and the positive reception of the manuscript.

(4) Next, the authors tested the ability to HBXN2020 to inhibit growth of Salmonella typhimurium (STm) and demonstrate that HBXN2020 inhibits STm in a dose dependent manner. Following this, the authors infect mice with STm to induce colitis and measure the ability of HBXN2020 to control colitis. The first outcome measure was a reduction in STm in faeces. Consistent with this, HBXN2020 reduced STm loads in the ileum, cecum, and colon. Colon length was also affected by HBXN2020 treatment. In addition, treatment with HBXN2020 reduced the appearance colon pathological features associated with colitis, together with a reduction in inflammatory cytokines.

Thanks for the constructive comments and the positive reception of the manuscript.

(5) After noting the beneficial (and anti-inflammatory effects) of HBXN2020, the authors set out to investigate effects on microbiota during treatment. Using a variety of algorithms, the authors demonstrate that upon HXBN2020 treatment, microbiota composition is restored to levels akin to that seen in healthy mice.

Thanks for the constructive comments and the positive reception of the manuscript.

(6) Finally, the authors assessed the effect of using HBXN2020 as prophylactic treatment for colitis by first treating mice with the spores and then infecting with STm. Their data indicate that treatment with HBXN2020 reduced colitis. A similar beneficial impact was seen with the gut microbiota.

Thanks for the constructive comments and the positive reception of the manuscript.

Strengths:

(1) Good use of in vitro and animal models to demonstrate a beneficial probiotic effect.

Thank you very much for your reading and comments our manuscript.

(2) Most observations are supported using multiple approaches.

Thanks for the comments and the positive reception of the manuscript.

(3) Mouse experiments are very convincing.

Thanks for the comments and the positive reception of the manuscript.

Weaknesses:

(1) Whilst a beneficial effect is observed, there no investigation of the mechanism that underpins this.

Thank you for pointing this out. We apologize for any inconvenience caused by the lack of mechanism research of the manuscript. In later work, we will focus on exploring the antibacterial substances and bactericidal mechanisms of B. velezensis. Thank you for your suggestions, and we hope our response has addressed your concerns.

(2) Mouse experiments would have benefited from the use of standard anti-inflammatory therapies to control colitis. That way the authors could compare their approach of using bacillus spores that current gold standard for treatment.

We gratefully appreciate for your valuable comments. The comments improve the quality and depth of manuscript. Based on your suggestion, we have supplemented this in the revised manuscript. We appreciate your review and feedback, and have marked the updated contents in the revised manuscript.

The updated contents were presented in line 198-378 in results section of the revised manuscript.

Reviewer #3 (Public Review):

Summary:

The manuscript by Wang et al. investigates the effects of B. velezensis HBXN2020 in alleviating S. Typhimurium-induced mouse colitis. The results showed that B. velezensis HBXN2020 could alleviate bacterial colitis by enhancing intestinal homeostasis (decreasing harmful bacteria and enhancing the abundance of Lactobacillus and Akkermansia) and gut barrier integrity and reducing inflammation.

Thanks for the comments and the positive reception of the manuscript.

Strengths:

B. velezensis HBXN2020 is a novel species of Bacillus that can produce a great variety of secondary metabolites and exhibit high antibacterial activity against several pathogens. B. velezensis HBXN2020 is able to form endospores and has strong anti-stress capabilities. B. velezensis HBXN2020 has a synergistic effect with other beneficial microorganisms, which can improve intestinal homeostasis.

Thanks for the comments and the positive reception of the manuscript.

Weaknesses:

Few studies about the clinical application of Bacillus velezensis. Thus, more studies are still needed to explore the effectiveness of Bacillus velezensis before clinical application.

Thanks for your suggestion. This study serves as an exploratory investigation before the application of Bacillus velezensis. The main purpose of this study is to explore the potential of Bacillus velezensis in application. We appreciate your review and feedback and hope that our response adequately addresses your concerns.

Recommendations for the authors:

Reviewer #1 (Recommendations For The Authors):

Most of my previous comments are well addressed, here are a few examples.<br /> While in my last comment, I requested a Colitis Mouse Model, which will well resemble the diarrhea disease caused by Salmonella in mammals. The available statement is not convincing, please check https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2225501/, https://pubs.rsc.org/en/content/articlelanding/2020/fo/d0fo01017k please replace "colitis" to a normal infection model. The current statement is incorrect.

Thank you for your valuable suggestion. The comments improve the quality of manuscript. We have corrected this in the revised manuscript as suggested. We have marked the updated contents in the revised manuscript.

The updated contents were presented in line 2, 29, 38, 46, 48, 199, 204, 246, 248, 282, 307, 310, 316, 431, 433, 464, 466, 473, 494, 497, 499, 504, 513, 518, 525, 706, 710 and 735 in the revised manuscript.

Certain parts remain to be overestimated, to my knowledge, the language and logical flow should be addressed thoroughly.

Here are suggestions to improve the logical flow of the manuscript.

(1) Probiotic sampling and isolation

(2) in vitro assessment

(3) genomic sequencing and in silico safety assessment (Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr. 2023;63(32):11244-11262), which should be included as a right ref.

(4) in vivo assay for safety evaluation, but not biosafety (it has a different meaning!!)

(5) infection model and protection assay.

We gratefully appreciate for your valuable comments. The comments improve the quality and depth of manuscript. According to your suggestion, we do our best to correct those problems in the revised manuscript. We would like to express our apologies once again and hope that the revised manuscript meets your expectations. We have marked the updated contents in the revised manuscript.

Also, please pay attention to the logical link or transition sentences between each part to connect the dots in each part.

We gratefully appreciate for your valuable comments. The comments improve the quality of manuscript. According to your suggestion, we have corrected this in the revised manuscript. We have marked the updated contents in the revised manuscript. 

Finally, there are also lots of typos and errors, please improve through the text.<br /> For example, Line 521. "Stain", and more...

Thanks for pointing this out. Based on your suggestion, we have corrected in the revised manuscript. We have marked the updated contents in the revised manuscript.

The updated contents were presented in line 753, 1055, 1087 in the revised manuscript.

Reviewer #2 (Recommendations For The Authors):

The revised manuscript by Wang and colleagues attempts to address concerns raised during the first round of review.

All minor comments have been addressed and in general, the major concerns have been partially addressed in the revised manuscript.

The outstanding concerns relate to the mechanistic basis of the observations. The authors made no attempt to address this in a meaningful manner. Secondly, the issue of comparing the responses to what would be standard therapy (such as anti-inflammatories) was also handled in a somewhat dismissive manner, referring to other ongoing/future work. The clinical utility of the findings are hard to ascertain if there is no comparison to the current gold standard therapeutic approach.

I have no further suggestions for the authors, save for those previously made.

Thank you for pointing this out. We apologize for any inconvenience caused by the lack of mechanism research of the manuscript. In later work, we will focus on exploring the antibacterial substances and bactericidal mechanisms of B. velezensis. Thank you for your suggestions, and we hope our response has addressed your concerns.

Secondly, About the comparative trial of oral bacillus spore treatment with the current gold standard for treatment, we have supplemented this in the revised manuscript. We appreciate your review and feedback, and have marked the updated contents in the revised manuscript.

The updated contents were presented in line 198-378 in results section of the revised manuscript.

Reviewer #3 (Recommendations For The Authors):

This is a revision, they have addressed all my concerns, and now it is acceptable.

Thank you very much for your comments and recognition of the manuscript.

Derived from the greek word oneiros meaning "dream". Oneiric means relating to dreams or dreaming.

Is a Spanish word that means on the contrary

A tutoring dashboard is both important for students and teachers, it is a guidance leading students to find information they need, and help them understand tasks better. Also, it can show them separated parts in a visual way.

Somehow, I think it's the one of the most important element in the online course, because it can tell learners the timeline and tasks exactly, which can help them keep things streamlined. And also, it's the basic logic of a course, no matter what kind of course it is, these elements should be there.

With R version 4.2.2 or greater and Stargazer version 5.2.3, this code doesn't work. You have to put all the models in a list first and use the list as the first argument of the stargazer command. all_models <- list(fat_mod1,fat_mod2,fat_mod3,fat_mod4,fat_mod5,fat_mod6,fat_mod7)

stargazer(all_models, digits = 3, header = FALSE, type = "text", se = rob_se, title = "Linear Panel Regression Models of Traffic Fatalities due to Drunk Driving", model.numbers = FALSE, column.labels = c("(1)", "(2)", "(3)", "(4)", "(5)", "(6)", "(7)"))

The logic of this command is not clear. if either "jail" or "service" is "yes", why is the label for punish "no"?

eLife Assessment

This study reports the fundamental discovery of a novel structure in the developing gut that acts as a midline barrier between left and right asymmetries. Some of the evidence supporting the dynamics, composition, and function of this novel basement membrane in the chick is solid, some is even convincing, but investigation of its origin and impact on asymmetric organogenesis remains challenging and is not yet conclusive. This careful work is of broad relevance to patterning mechanisms, the importance of the extracellular matrix, and laterality disorders.

Joint Public Review:

When the left-right asymmetry of an animal body is established, a barrier that prevents the mixing of signals or cells across the midline is essential. Such midline barrier preventing the spreading of asymmetric Nodal signaling during early left-right patterning has been identified. However, midline barriers during later asymmetric organogenesis have remained largely unknown, except in the brain. In this study, the authors discovered an unexpected structure in the midline of the developing midgut in the chick. Using immunofluorescence, they convincingly show the chemical composition of this midline structure as a double basement membrane and its transient existence during the left-right patterning of the dorsal mesentery, that authors showed previously to be essential for forming the gut loop and guiding local vasculogenesis. Labelling experiments demonstrate a physical and chemical barrier function, to cell mixing and signal diffusion in the dorsal mesentery. Cell labelling and graft experiments rule out a cellular composition of the midline from dorsal mesenchyme or endoderm origin and rule out an inducing role by the notochord. Based on laminin expression pattern and Ntn4 resistance, the authors propose a model, whereby the midline basement membrane is progressively deposited by the descending endoderm. Observations of a transient midline basement membrane in the veiled chameleon suggest a conserved mechanism in birds and reptiles.

Laterality defects encompass severe malformations of visceral organs, with a heterogenous spectrum that remains poorly understood, by lack of knowledge of the different players of left-right asymmetry. This fundamental work significantly advances our understanding of left-right asymmetric organogenesis, by identifying an organ-specific and stage-specific midline barrier. The complexities of basement membrane assembly, maintenance and function are of importance in several other contexts, as for example in the kidney and brain. Thus, this original work is of broad interest.

Overall, reviewers refer to a strong and elegant paper discovering a novel midline structure, combining classic but challenging techniques, and well thought tools, to show the dynamics, chemical and physical properties of the midline. Reviewers also indicate that further work will be necessary to conclude on the origin and impact of the midline for asymmetric organogenesis. They acknowledge that this is currently technically challenging and that authors have made several attempts to answer these questions by different means. The article includes an interesting discussion about these points and the mechanism of midline breakdown.

Author response:

The following is the authors’ response to the original reviews.

Reviewer #1:

Summary:

Left-right asymmetry in the developing embryo is important for establishing correct lateralisation of the internal organs, including the gut. It has been shown previously that the dorsal mesentery (DM), which supports looping of the endodermal gut tube during development, is asymmetric with sharp delineation of left and right domains prior to gut looping. The authors set out to investigate the nature of the midline barrier that separates the left and right sides of the DM. They identify a transient basement membrane-like structure which is organised into two layers between the notochord and descending endoderm. In the time window when this basement membrane structure exists, there is no diffusion or cell mixing between the left and right sides of the DM, but once this structure starts breaking down, mixing and diffusion occur. This suggests it acts as a barrier, both physical and chemical, between left and right at the onset of gut lateralisation.

Strengths:

The authors identify a new midline structure that likely acts as a barrier to facilitate left and right separation during early organogenesis. This is an interesting addition to the field of laterality, with relevance to laterality-related disorders including heterotaxia, and may represent a gut-specific mechanism for establishing and maintaining early left-right asymmetry. The structure of this midline barrier appears to be an atypical basement membrane, comprising two adjacent basement membranes. The complexities of basement membrane assembly, maintenance, and function are of importance in almost all organismal contexts. Double basement membranes have been previously reported (for example in the kidney glomeruli as the authors note), and increasing evidence suggests that atypical basement membrane organisation or consideration is likely to be more prevalent than previously appreciated. Thus this work is both novel and broadly interesting.

The data presented are well executed, using a variety of well-established methods. The characterisation of the midline barrier at the stages examined is extensive, and the data around the correlation between the presence of the midline barrier and molecular diffusion or cell mixing across the midline are convincing.

Weaknesses:

The study is rather descriptive, and the authors' hypotheses around the origins of the midline barrier are speculative and not experimentally demonstrated. While several potential origins of the midline are excluded raising interesting questions about the timing and cell-type-specific origin of the midline basement membrane, these remain unanswered which limits the scope of the paper.

We extend our appreciation to Reviewer #1 for their thoughtful and comprehensive evaluation of our work, recognizing the considerable time and effort they dedicated to our work. We agree that functional data would significantly strengthen our understanding of the midline barrier and its exact role during LR asymmetric gut development. However, we would like to note that repeated and diligent attempts to perturb this barrier were made using various strategies, such as in vivo laser ablation, diphtheria toxin, molecular disruption (Netrin 4), and enzymatic digestion (MMP2 and MMP9 electroporation) but we observed no significant effect or stable disruption of the midline. We acknowledge and accept this limitation and hope that our discovery will invite future investigations and perturbation of this novel midline structure.

For example, it is unclear whether the two basement membranes originally appear to be part of a single circular/spherical structure (which looks possible from the images) that simply becomes elongated, or whether it is indeed initially two separate basement membranes that extend.

We favor the hypothesis that the elongation of the preexisting small circular structure to an extended double membrane of relatively increased length would be unlikely without continued contribution of new basement membrane components. However, our attempts to label and trace the basement membrane of the endoderm using tagged laminins (LAMB1-GFP, LAMB1-His, and LAMC1-His), and more recently tagged nidogen constructs (NID1-GFP and NID1-mNG) have met with export issues (despite extensive collaboration with experts, Drs. Dave Sherwood and Peter Yurchenco). As such, it remains difficult to differentiate between the two possibilities suggested. We also believe this is an important question and will continue to investigate methods to trace it.

There is a substantial gap between the BMs at earlier stages before the endoderm has descended - is this a lumen, or is it filled with interstitial matrix?

Our preliminary studies indicate that the gap enclosed by the basement membranes in the early midline structure does have extracellular matrix present, such as fibrillin-2 (see Author response image 1). Also, the electron microscopy shown in Fig. 2 C’’ supports that the space between the notochord and endoderm has fibrillar matrix.

Author response image 1.

The authors show where this basement membrane does not originate from, but only speculate on its origin. Part of this reasoning is due to the lack of Lama1-expressing cells either in the early midline barrier before it extends, or in the DM cells adjacent to it. However, the Laminin observed in the midline could be comprised of a different alpha subtype for example, that wasn't assessed (it has been suggested that the Laminin antibody used in this study is not specific to the alpha-1 subunit, see e.g. Lunde et al, Brain Struct Funct, 2015).

We appreciate this comment and have tried other laminin RNA probes that showed similar lack of midline expression (Lama1, lama3, lama5). Importantly, the laminin alpha 1 subunit is a component of the laminin 111 heterotrimer, which along with laminin 511 is the first laminin to be expressed and assemble in embryonic basement membranes, as reviewed in Yurchenco 2011. Laminin 111 is particularly associated with embryonic development while laminins 511/521 become the most widespread in the adult (reviewed in Aumailley 2013). It is likely that the midline contains laminin 111 based on our antibody staining and the accepted importance and prevalence of laminin 111 in embryonic development. However, it is indeed worth noting that most laminin heterotrimers contain beta 1, gamma 1, or both subunits, and due to this immunological relation laminin antibody cross reactivity is certainly known (Aumailley 2013). As such, while laminin 511 remains a possibility as a component of the midline BM, our lama5 in situs have shown no differential expression at the midline of the dorsal mesentery (see Author response image 2), and as such we are confident that our finding of no local laminin transcription is accurate. Additionally, we will note that the study referenced by the Reviewer observed cross reactivity between the alpha 1 and alpha 2 subunits. Laminin 211/221 is an unlikely candidate based on the embryonic context, and because they are primarily associated with muscle basement membranes (Aumailley 2013). In further support, we recently conducted a preliminary transcriptional profile analysis of midline cells isolated through laser capture microdissection (LCM), which revealed no differential expression of any laminin subunit at the midline. Please note that these data will be included as part of a follow-up story and falls beyond the scope of our initial characterization.

Author response image 2.

Similarly, the authors show that the midline barrier breaks down, and speculate that this is due to the activity of e.g. matrix metalloproteinases, but don't assess MMP expression in that region.

This is an important point, as the breakdown of the midline is unusually rapid. Our MMP2 RNA in situ hybridization at HH21, and ADAMTS1 (and TS9) at HH19-21 indicates no differential activity at the midline (see Author response images 3 and 4). Our future focus will be on identifying a potential protease that exhibits differential activity at the midline of the DM.

Author response image 3.

Author response image 4.

The authors suggest the (plausible) hypothesis that the descent of the endoderm pulls or stretches the midline barrier out from its position adjacent to the notochord. This is an interesting possibility, but there is no experimental evidence to directly support this. Similarly, while the data supporting the barrier function of this midline is good, there is no analysis of the impact of midline/basement membrane disruption demonstrating that it is required for asymmetric gut morphogenesis. A more functional approach to investigating the origins and role of this novel midline barrier would strengthen the study.

Yes, we fully agree that incorporating functional data would immensely advance our understanding of the midline barrier and its crucial role in left-right gut asymmetry. However, our numerous efforts to perturb this barrier have encountered technical obstacles. For instance, while perturbing the left and right compartments of the DM is a routine and well-established procedure in our laboratory, accessing the midline directly through similar approaches has been far more challenging. We have made several attempts to address this hurdle using various strategies, such as in vivo laser ablation, diphtheria toxin, molecular disruption (Netrin 4), and enzymatic digestion (MMP2 and MMP9 electroporation). Despite employing diverse approaches, we have yet to achieve effective and interpretable perturbation of this resilient structure. We acknowledge this limitation and remain committed to developing methods to disrupt the midline in our current investigations. We again thank Reviewer #1 for the detailed feedback on our manuscript, guidance, and the time taken to provide these comments.

Recommendations For The Authors:

Using Laminin subunit-specific antibodies, or exploring the mRNA expression of more laminin subunits may support the argument that the midline does not derive from the notochord, endoderm, or DM.

As mentioned above, RNA in situ hybridization for candidate genes and a preliminary RNA-seq analysis of cells isolated from the dorsal mesentery midline revealed no differential expression of any laminin subunits.

Similarly, expression analysis of Laminin-degrading MMPs, and/or application of an MMP inhibitor and assessment of midline integrity could strengthen the authors' hypothesis that the BM is actively and specifically broken down.

Our MMP2 RNA in situ hybridization at HH21, and ADAMTS1 at HH19-21shows no differential expression pattern at the midline of the DM (see Author response image 3). We have not included these data in the revision, but future work on this topic will aim at identifying a protease that is differentially active at the midline of the DM.

Functionally testing the role of barrier formation in regulating left-right asymmetry or the role of endoderm descent in elongating the midline barrier would be beneficial. Regarding the former, the authors show that Netrin4 overexpression is insufficient to disrupt the midline, but perhaps overexpression of e.g. MMP9 prior to descent of the endoderm would facilitate early degradation of the midline, and the impact of this on gut rotation could be assessed.

Unfortunately, MMP9 electroporation has produced little appreciable effect. We acknowledge that the lack of direct evidence for the midline’s role in regulating left-right asymmetry is a shortcoming, but current work on this subject aims to define the midline’s function to LR asymmetric morphogenesis.

Reviewer #2:

When the left-right asymmetry of an animal body is established, the barrier that prevents the mixing of signals or cells across the midline is essential. The midline barrier that prevents the mixing of asymmetric signals during the patterning step has been identified. However, a midline barrier that separates both sides during asymmetric organogenesis is unknown. In this study, the authors discovered the cellular structure that seems to correspond to the midline in the developing midgut. This midline structure is transient, present at the stage when the barrier would be required, and composed of Laminin-positive membrane. Stage-dependent diffusion of dextran across the midline (Figure 6) coincides with the presence or absence of the structure (Figures 2, 3). These lines of indirect evidence suggest that this structure most likely functions as the midline barrier in the developing gut.

We extend our gratitude to Reviewer #2 for their thoughtful assessment of our research and for taking the time to provide these constructive comments. We are excited to report that we have now included additional new data on midline diffusion using BODIPY and quantification method to further support our findings on the midline's barrier function. While our data on dextran and now BODIPY both indirectly suggests barrier function, we aspire to perturb the midline directly to assess its role in the dorsal mesentery more conclusively. However, our numerous efforts to perturb this barrier have encountered technical obstacles. For instance, while perturbing the left and right compartments of the DM is a routine and well-established procedure in our laboratory, accessing the midline directly through similar approaches has been far more challenging. We have made several attempts to address this hurdle using various strategies, such as in vivo laser ablation, diphtheria toxin, molecular disruption (Netrin 4), and enzymatic digestion (MMP2 and MMP9 electroporation). Despite employing diverse approaches, we have yet to achieve effective and interpretable perturbation of this resilient structure. Moving forward, our focus is on identifying an effective means of perturbation that can offer direct evidence of barrier function.

Recommendations For The Authors:

(1) It would be much nicer if the requirement of this structure for asymmetric morphogenesis was directly tested. However, experimental manipulations such as ectopic expression of Netrin4 or transplantation of the notochord were not able to influence the formation of this structure (these results, however, suggested the mechanism of the midline formation in the gut dorsal mesentery). Therefore, it seems not feasible to directly test the function of the structure, and this should be the next issue.

We fully agree that the midline will need to be perturbed to fully elucidate its role in asymmetric gut morphogenesis. As noted, multiple attempts were ineffective at perturbing this structure. Extensive current work on this topic is dedicated to finding an effective perturbation method.

(2) Whereas Laminin protein was present in the double basement membrane at the midline, Laminin mRNA was not expressed in the corresponding region (Fig. 4A-C). It is necessary to discuss (with experimental evidence if available) the origin of Laminin protein.

As we have noted, the source of laminin and basement membrane components for the midline remains unclear - no local transcription and the lack of sufficiency of the notochord to produce a midline indicates that the endoderm to be a likely source of laminin, as we have proposed in our zippering endoderm model. We will note that Fig. 4A-C indicate that laminin is in fact actively transcribed in the endoderm. Currently, attempts to trace the endodermal basement membrane using tagged laminins (LAMB1-GFP, LAMB1-His, and LAMC1-His), and more recently tagged nidogen constructs (NID1-GFP and NID1-mNG) have met with export issues (despite extensive collaboration with experts, Drs. Dave Sherwood and Peter Yurchenco). Confirmation of our proposed endodermal origin model is a goal of our ongoing work.

(3) Figure 4 (cell polarity from GM130 staining): addition of representative GM130 staining images for each Rose graph (Figure 4E) would help. They can be shown in Supplementary Figures. Also, a graph for the right coelomic epithelium in Fig. 4E would be informative.

We have added the requested GM130 images in our Supplemental Figures (please refer to Fig. S4ABB’) and modified the main Fig. 4E to include a rose graph for the polarity of the right coelomic epithelium.

(4) Histological image of HH19 DM shown in Fig. 2J looks somehow different from that shown in Fig. 3F. Does Fig. 2J represent a slightly earlier stage than Fig. 3F?

Figure 2J and Figure 3F depict a similar stage, although the slight variation in the length of the dorsal mesentery is attributed to the pseudo time phenomenon illustrated in Figure 3J-J’’’. This implies that the sections in Figure 2J and Figure 3F might originate from slightly different positions along the anteroposterior axis. Nonetheless, these distinctions are minimal, and based on the dorsal mesentery's length in Figure 2J, the midline is likely extremely robust regardless of this minor pseudo time difference.

Reviewer #3:

Summary:

The authors report the presence of a previously unidentified atypical double basement membrane (BM) at the midline of the dorsal mesentery (DM) during the establishment of left-right (LR) asymmetry. The authors suggest that this BM functions as a physical barrier between the left and the right sides of the DM preventing cell mixing and ligand diffusion, thereby establishing LR asymmetry.

Strengths:

The observation of the various components in the BM at the DM midline is clear and convincing. The pieces of evidence ruling out the roles of DM and the notochord in the origin of this BM are also convincing. The representation of the figures and the writing is clear.

Weaknesses:

The paper's main and most important weakness is that it lacks direct evidence for the midline BM's barrier and DM LR asymmetry functions.

We thank Reviewer #3 for their thoughtful and comprehensive evaluation of our work, recognizing the considerable time and effort they dedicated to assessing our study. We fully agree that incorporating functional data would immensely advance our understanding of the midline barrier and its crucial role in left-right gut asymmetry. However, several distinct attempts at perturbing this barrier have encountered technical obstacles. While our laboratory routinely perturbs the left and right compartments of the DM via DNA electroporation and other techniques, directly perturbing the midline using these methods is far more challenging. We have made diligent attempts to address this using various strategies, such as in vivo laser ablation, diphtheria toxin, molecular disruption (Netrin 4), and enzymatic digestion (MMP2 and MMP9 electroporation). However, we have not yet been able to identify a means of producing consistent and interpretable perturbation of the midline. We acknowledge this limitation and remain committed to developing methods to disrupt the midline in our current investigations.

Recommendations For The Authors:

Major:

(1) We suggest the authors test their hypotheses i.e., physical barrier and proper LR asymmetry establishment by the midline BM, by disrupting it using techniques such as physical ablation, over-expression of MMPs, or treatment with commercially available enzymes that digest the BM.

As above, efforts involving physical ablation and MMP overexpression have not yielded significant effects on the midline thus far. Moving forward, investigating the midline's role in asymmetric morphogenesis will necessitate finding a method to perturb it effectively. In pursuit of progress on this critical question, we recently conducted laser capture microdissection (LCM) and RNA-sequencing of the midline to unravel the mechanisms underlying its formation and potential disruption. This work shows promise but it is still in its early stages; validating it will require significant time and effort, and it falls outside the scope of the current manuscript.

(2) Lefty1's role in the midline BM was ruled out by correlating lack of expression of the gene at the midline during HH19 when BM proteins expression was observed. Lefty1 may still indirectly or directly trigger the expression of these BM proteins at earlier stages. The only way to test this is by inhibiting lefty1 expression and examining the effect on BM protein localization.

We have added a section to discuss the potential of Lefty1 inhibition as a future direction. However, similar to perturbing global Nodal expression, interpreting the results of Lefty1 inhibition could be challenging. This is because it may not specifically target the midline but could affect vertebrate laterality as a whole. Despite this complexity, we acknowledge the value of such an experiment and consider it worth pursuing in the future.

(3) Using a small dextran-based assay, the authors conclude that diffusible ligands such as cxcl2 and bmp4 do not diffuse across the midline (Figure 6). However, dextran injection in this system seems to label the cells, not the extracellular space. The authors measure diffusion, or the lack thereof, by counting the proportion of dextran-labeled cells rather than dextran intensity itself. Therefore, This result shows a lack of cell mixing across the midline (already shown in Figure 2 ) rather than a lack of diffusion.

We should emphasize that the dextran-injected embryos shown in Fig. 6 D-F were isolated two hours post-injection, a timeframe insufficient for cell migration to occur across the DM (Mahadevan et al., 2014). We also collected additional post-midline stage embryos ten minutes after dextran injections - too short a timeframe for significant cellular migration (Mahadevan et al., 2014). Importantly, the fluorescent signal in those embryos was comparable to that observed in the embryos in Fig. 6. Thus, we believe the movement of fluorescent signal across the DM when the barrier starts to fragment (HH20-HH23) is unlikely to represent cell migration. More than a decade of DNA electroporation experiments of the left vs. right DM by our laboratory and others have never indicated substantial cell migration across the midline (Davis et al., 2008; Kurpios et al., 2008; Welsh et al., 2013; Mahadevan et al., 2014; Arraf et al. 2016; Sivakumar et al., 2018; Arraf et al. 2020; and Sanketi et al., 2022). This is also shown in our current GFP/RFP double electroporation data in Fig. 2 G-H, and DiI/DiO labeling data in Fig. 2 E-G. Collectively, our experiments suggest that the dextran signal we observed at HH20 and HH23 is likely not driven by cell mixing.

To further strengthen this argument, we now have additional new data on midline diffusion using BODIPY diffusion and quantification method to support our findings on the midline's function against diffusion (please refer to New Fig. 6H-M). Briefly, we utilized a BODIPY-tagged version of AMD3100 (Poty et al., 2015) delivered via soaked resin beads surgically inserted into the left coelomic cavity (precursor to the DM). The ratio of average AMD3100-BODIPY intensity in the right DM versus the left DM was below 0.5 when the midline is intact (HH19), indicating little diffusion across the DM (Fig. 6J). At HH21 when no midline remains, this ratio significantly rises to near one, indicating diffusion of the drug is not impeded when the midline basement membrane structure is absent. Collectively, these data suggest that the basement membrane structure at the midline forms a transient functional barrier against diffusion.

(4) Moreover, in a previous study (Mahadevan et al., Dev Cell., 2014), cxcl2 and bmp4 expression was observed on both the left and right side before gut closure (HH17, when midline BM is observed). Then their expression patterns were restricted on the left or right side of DM at around HH19-20 (when midline BM is dissociated). The authors must explain how the midline BM can act as a barrier against diffusible signals at HH-17 to 19, where diffusible signals (cxcl12 and bmp4) were localized on both sides.

We appreciate the Reviewer's invitation to clarify this crucial point. Early in dorsal mesentery (DM) formation, genes like Cxcl12 (Mahadevan et al., Dev Cell 2014) and Bmp4 (Sanketi et al., Science 2021) exhibit symmetry before Pitx2 expression initiates on the left (around ~HH18, Sanketi et al., 2021). Pitx2 then inhibits BMP4 (transcription) and maintains Cxcl12 (mRNA) expression on the left side. The loss of Cxcl12 mRNA on the right is due to the extracellular matrix (ECM), particularly hyaluronan (Sivakumar et al., Dev Cell 2018). Our hypothesis is that during these critical stages of initial DM asymmetry establishment, the midline serves as a physical barrier against protein diffusion to protect this asymmetry during a critical period of symmetry breaking. Although some genes, such as Pitx2 and Cxcl12 continue to display asymmetric transcription after midline dissolution (Cxcl12 becomes very dynamic later on – see Mahadevan), it's crucial to note that the midline's primary role is preventing protein diffusion across it, akin to an insurance policy. Thus, the absence of the midline barrier at HH21 does not result in the loss of asymmetric mRNA expression. We think its primary function is to block diffusible factors from crossing the midline at a critical period of symmetry breaking. We acknowledge that confirming this hypothesis will necessitate experimental disruption of the midline and observing the consequent effects on asymmetry in the DM. This remains central to our ongoing research on this subject.

(5) On page 11, lines 15-17, the authors mention that "We know that experimentally mixing left and right signals is detrimental to gut tilting and vascular patterning-for example, ectopic expression of pro-angiogenic Cxcl12 on the right-side results in an aberrant vessel forming on the right (Mahadevan et al., Dev Cell., 2014)". In this previous report from the author's laboratory, the authors suggested that ectopic expression of cxcl12 on the right side induced aberrant formation of the vessel on the right side, which was formed from stage HH17, and the authors also suggested that the vessel originated from left-sided endothelial cells. If the midline BM acts as a barrier against the diffusible signal, how the left-sided endothelial cells can contribute to vessel formation at HH17 (before midline BM dissociation)?

To address this point, we suggest directing the Reviewer to previously published supplemental movies of time-lapse imaging, which clearly illustrate the migration path of endothelial cells from left to right DM (Mahadevan et al., Dev Cell 2014). While the Reviewer correctly notes that ectopic induction of Cxcl12 on the right induces left-to-right migration, it's crucial to highlight that these cells never cross the midline. Instead, they migrate immediately adjacent to the tip of the endoderm (please also refer to published Movies S2 and S3). We observe this migration pattern even in wild-type scenarios during the loss of the endogenous right-sided endothelial cords, where some endothelial cells from the right begin slipping over to the left around HH19-20 (over the endoderm), as the midline is beginning to fragment, but never traverse the midline. We attribute this migration pattern to a dorsal-to-ventral gradient of left-sided Cxcl12 expression, as disrupting this pattern perturbs the migration trajectory (Mahadevan).

6) It is unclear how continuous is the midline BM across the anterior-posterior axis across the relevant stages. Relatedly, it is unclear how LR segregated the cells are, across the anterior-posterior axis across the relevant stages.

We refer the reviewer to Fig. 3J-K, in which the linear elongation of the midline basement membrane structure is shown and measured at HH19 in three embryos from the posterior of the embryo to the anterior point at which the midline is fragmented and ceases to be continuous. Similarly, Fig. S2 shoes the same phenomenon in serial sections along the length of the anterior-posterior (AP) axis at HH17, also showing the continuity of the midline. All our past work at all observed sections of the AP axis has shown that cells do not move across the midline as indicated by electroporation of DNA encoding fluorescent reporters (Davis et al. 2008, Kurpios et al. 2008, Welsh et al. 2013, Mahadevan et al. 2014, Sivakumar et al. 2018, Sanketi et al. 2022), and is shown again in Fig. 2 E-H. As noted previously, very few endothelial cells cross the midline at a point just above the endoderm (image above) when the right endothelial cord remodels (Mahadevan et al. 2014), but this is a limited phenomenon to endothelial cells and cells of the left and right DM are fully segregated as previously established.

Minor comments:

(1) The authors found that left and right-side cells were not mixed with each other even after the dissociation of the DM midline at HH21 (Fig2 H). And the authors also previously mentioned that N-cadherin contributes to cell sorting for left-right DM segregation (Kurpios et al., Proc Natl Acad Sci USA., 2008). It could be a part of the discussion about the difference in tissue segregation systems before or after the dissociation of DM midline.

We appreciate this thoughtful suggestion. N-cadherin mediated cell sorting is key to the LR asymmetry of the DM and gut tilting, and we believe it underlies the observed lack of cell mixing from left and right DM compartments after the midline fragments. We have added a brief section to the discussion concerning the asymmetries in N-cadherin expression that develop after the midline fragments.

(2) Please add the time point on the images (Fig3 C, D, Fig 6A and B)

We have updated these figures to provide the requested stage information.

(3) The authors suggested that the endoderm might be responsible for making the DM BM midline because the endoderm links to DM midlines and have the same resistance to NTN4. The authors mentioned that the midline and endoderm might have basement membranes of the same "flavor." However, perlecan expression was strongly expressed in the midline BM compared with the endodermal BM. It could be a part of the discussion about the difference in the properties of the BM between the endoderm and DM midline.

Perlecan does indeed localize strongly to the endoderm as well as the midline. The HH18 image included in prior Fig. S3 B’, B’’ appears to show atypically low antibody staining in the endoderm for all membrane components. Perlecan is an important component for general basement membrane assembly, and the bulk of our HH18 and HH19 images indicate strong staining for perlecan in both midline and endoderm. Perlecan staining at the very earliest stages of midline formation also indicate perlecan in the endoderm as well, supporting the endoderm as a potential source for the midline basement membrane. We have updated Fig. S3 to include these images in our revision.

(4) The authors investigated whether the midline BM originates from the notochord or endoderm, but did not examine a role for endothelial cells and pericytes surrounding the dorsal aorta (DA). In Fig S1, Fig S2, and FigS3, the authors showed that DA is very close to the DM midline basement membrane, so it is worth checking their roles.

We fully agree that the dorsal aorta and the endothelial cords that originate from the dorsal aorta may interact with the midline in important ways. However, accessing the dorsal aorta for electroporation or other perturbation is extremely difficult. Additionally, the basement membrane of vascular endothelial cells has a distinct composition from a non-vascular basement membrane. Vascular endothelial cells produce only alpha 4 and alpha 5 laminin subunits but contain no alpha 1 subunit in any known species (reviewed in DiRusso et al., 2017). Thus, endothelial cell-derived basement membranes would not contain the alpha 1 laminin subunit that we used in our studies as a robust marker of the midline basement membrane. Additionally, no fibronectin is found in the midline basement membrane, while it is enriched in the dorsal aorta (see Supplemental Figure 3CC’C’’). We will briefly note that our preliminary data in quail tissue indicates that QH1+ cord cells (i.e. endothelial cells) sometimes exhibit striking contact with the midline along the dorso-ventral length of the DM, suggesting not an origin but an important interaction.

Reviewer #4 (Recommendations For The Authors):

Major comments:

(1) The descending endoderm zippering model for the formation of the midline lacks evidence.

We have attempted to address this issue by introducing several tagged laminin constructs (LAMB1-GFP, LAMB1-His, LAMC1-His), and more recently tagged nidogen plasmids (NID1-GFP and NID1-mNG) to the endoderm via DNA electroporation to try to label the source of the basement membrane. Production of the tagged components occurred but no export was observed in any case (despite extensive collaboration with experts in this area, Drs. Dave Sherwood and Peter Yurchenco). This experiment was further complicated by the necessary large size of these constructs at 10-11kb due to the size of laminin subunit genes, resulting in low electroporation efficiency. We also believe this is an important question and are continuing to investigate methods to trace it.

The midline may be Ntn4 resistant until it is injected in the source cells.

Ntn4 has been shown to disrupt both assembling and existing basement membranes (Reuten et al. 2016). Thus, we feel that the midline and endodermal basement membranes’ resistance to degradation is not determined by stage of assembly or location of secretion.

Have you considered an alternative origin from the bilateral dorsal aorta or the paraxial mesoderm, which would explain the double layer as a meeting of two lateral tissues? The left and right paraxial mesoderm seem to abut in Fig. S1B-C and S2E, and is laminin-positive in Fig 4A'. What are the cells present at the midline (Fig.4D-E)? Are they negative for the coelomic tracing, paraxial or aortic markers?

We fully agree that alternate origins of the midline basement membrane cannot be ruled out from our existing data. We agree and have considered the dorsal aorta and even the endothelial cords that originate from the dorsal aorta. However, accessing the dorsal aorta for electroporation or other perturbation is extremely difficult. Importantly, the basement membrane of vascular endothelial cells has a distinct composition from a non-vascular basement membrane. Vascular endothelial cells produce only alpha 4 and alpha 5 laminin subunits but contain no alpha 1 subunit in any known species (reviewed in Hallmann et al. 2005). Thus, endothelial cell-derived basement membranes would not contain the alpha 1 laminin subunit that we used in our studies as a robust marker of the midline basement membrane. Note in Fig. 3 E-H that our laminin alpha 1 antibody staining does not label the aortae. Additionally, no fibronectin is found in the midline basement membrane, while it is enriched in the dorsal aorta (see Supplemental Figure 3CC’C’’). We will briefly note that our preliminary data in quail tissue indicates that QH1+ cord cells (i.e. endothelial cells) sometimes exhibit striking contact with the midline along the dorso-ventral length of the DM, suggesting not an origin but an important interaction. Moreover, at the earliest stages of midline basement membrane emergence, the dorsal aortae are distant from the nascent basement membrane, as are the somites, which have not yet undergone any epithelial to mesenchymal transition. Fig. S2G provides an example of an extremely early midline basement membrane without dorsal aorta or somite contact. S2G is from a section of the embryo that is fairly posterior in the embryo, it is thus less developed in pseudo-time and gives a window on midline formation in very early embryos.

(2) The importance of the midline is inferred from previously published data and stage correlations but will require more direct evidence. Can the midline be manipulated with Hh signaling or MMPs?

We agree that direct evidence in the form of midline perturbation will be critically required. As previously noted, our numerous efforts to perturb this barrier have encountered technical obstacles. For instance, while perturbing the left and right compartments of the DM is a routine and well-established procedure in our laboratory, accessing the midline directly through similar approaches has been far more challenging. We have made several attempts to address this hurdle using various strategies, such as in vivo laser ablation, diphtheria toxin, molecular disruption (Netrin 4), and enzymatic digestion (MMP2 and MMP9 electroporation). Despite employing diverse approaches, we have yet to achieve effective and interpretable perturbation of this resilient structure. Targeting Hh signaling between the endoderm and notochord is a good idea and we will continue these efforts. Thanks very much.

Minor comments:

- Please add the species in the title.

We have altered the title as follows: “An atypical basement membrane forms a midline barrier during left-right asymmetric gut development in the chicken embryo.”

- The number of observations in Fig2, Fig3A-B, 4A-C, G-H, S1, S3 is lacking.

We have added the requested n numbers of biological replicates to the legends of the specified figures.

- Please annotate Fig 3J to show what is measured in K.

We have modified Fig. 3J to include a dashed bar indicating the length measurements in Fig. 3K.

- Please provide illustrations of Fig 4E.

We have added a representative image of GM130 staining to the supplement.

- If laminin gamma is the target of Ntn4, its staining would help interpret the results of Ntn4 manipulation. Is laminin gamma present in different proportions in the different types of basement membranes, underlying variations in sensitivity?

Laminin is exported as a heterotrimer consisting of an alpha, beta, and gamma subunit. Laminin gamma is therefore present in equal proportions to other laminins in all basement membranes with a laminin network. Several gamma isoforms do exist, but only laminin gamma 1 will bind to laminin alpha 1, which we use throughout this paper to mark the midline as well as nearby basement membranes that are sensitive to Ntn4 disruption. Thus, gamma laminin proportions or isoforms are unlikely to underlie the resistance of the midline and endodermal basement membranes to Ntn4 (reviewed in Yurchenco 2011).

- Please comment: what is the red outline abutting the electroporated DM on the left of Fig5B?

The noted structure is the basement membrane of the nephric duct – we added this information to Fig. 5B image and legend.

- The stage in Fig 6A-B is lacking.

We have added the requested stage information to Fig. 6.

- Please comment on whether there is or is not some cell mixing Fig 2H, at HH21 after the midline disappearance. Is it consistent with Fig. 6E-F which labels cells?

More than a decade of DNA electroporation experiments of the left vs. right DM by our laboratory and others have never indicated dorsal mesentery cell migration across the midline (Davis et al., 2008; Kurpios et al., 2008; Welsh et al., 2013; Mahadevan et al., 2014; Arraf et al. 2016; Sivakumar et al., 2018; Arraf et al. 2020; and Sanketi et al., 2022). This is also shown in our current GFP/RFP double electroporation data in Fig. 2 G-H, and DiI/DiO labeling data in Fig. 2 E-G. Cell mixing does not occur even after midline disappearance, most likely due to asymmetric N-cadherin expression on the left side of the DM (Kurpios et al., 2008). The sparse, green-labeled cells observed on the right side in Fig. 2H are likely a result of DNA electroporation - the accuracy of this process relies on the precise injection of the left (or right) coelomic cavity (precursor to the gut mesenchyme including the DM) and subsequent correct placement of the platinum electrodes.

Based on these data, we strongly feel that cellular migration is not responsible for the pattern of dextran observed in Fig. 6E-F, especially in light of the N-cadherin mediated segregation of left and right. We will also note that there is no significant difference between dextran diffusion at HH19 and HH20, only a trend towards significance. Additionally, we would like to note that the dextran-injected embryos were isolated two hours post-injection, which we do not believe is sufficient time for any cell migration to occur across the DM. We also collected additional post-midline stage embryos ten minutes after dextran injections (data not shown), too short a timeframe for significant cellular migration, and the fluorescent signal in those embryos was comparable to that represented in the embryos in Fig. 6. Thus, we believe the movement of fluorescent signal across the DM observed when the barrier starts to fragment at HH20 and HH23 is unlikely to represent movement of cells.

To further strengthen this argument, we now have additional new data on midline diffusion using BODIPY and quantification method to support our findings on the midline's function against diffusion (please refer to New Fig. 6H-M). Briefly, we utilized a BODIPY-tagged version of AMD3100 (Poty et al., 2015) delivered via soaked resin beads surgically inserted into the left coelomic cavity (precursor to the DM). The ratio of average AMD3100-BODIPY intensity in the right DM versus the left DM was below 0.5 when the midline is intact (HH19), indicating little diffusion across the DM (Fig. 6J). At HH21 when no midline remains, this ratio significantly rises to near one, indicating diffusion of the drug is not impeded when the midline basement membrane structure is absent. Collectively, these data suggest that the basement membrane structure at the midline forms a transient functional barrier against diffusion.

- 'independent of Lefty1': rephrase or show the midline phenotype after lefty1 inactivation.

We agree with this comment and have rephrased this section to indicate the midline is present “at a stage when Lefty1 is no longer expressed at the midline.”

We again would like to extend our sincere gratitude to our reviewers and the editors at eLife for their dedicated time and thorough evaluation of our paper. Their meticulous attention to detail and valuable insights have strengthened our data and provided further support for our findings.

While it would not have been realised fully at the time, overreliance on generative art, be it text, music, pictures or videos, is harmful for the the electronic literature as a whole. As we know, even present day AI is unable to create something new, it only replicates what is already present using the tools it has, whcih are limited by it's design, That ties into the modern theory of the Dead Interent, which, despite being conspirology for the most part, does have some reasons to exist. Over-saturation with generated imagery, text and video-files creates a closed loophole, with the same material being reused ad nauseam.

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• "📝 Memo Emoji" (emojipedia.org)

A white piece of paper with text written on it by a yellow pencil, positioned over the sheet, tip down, at a 45° angle. Commonly used for content concerning various types of documents and writing, including signing (in sports).

eLife Assessment

This potentially useful study introduces an orthogonal approach for detecting RNA modification, without chemical modification of RNA, which often results in RNA degradation and therefore loss of RNA molecules. While the authors have improved the work compared to a previous version, uncertainty regarding false positive and false negative rates leave the evidence for the broad applicability of the method incomplete. If properly validated, the approach might be of particular interest for sites where modifications are rare.

Reviewer #2 (Public review):

The fledgling field of epitranscriptomics has encountered various technical roadblocks with implications as to the validity of early epitranscriptomics mapping data. As a prime example, the low specificity of (supposedly) modification-specific antibodies for the enrichment of modified RNAs, has been ignored for quite some time and is only now recognized for its dismal reproducibility (between different labs), which necessitates the development of alternative methods for modification detection.

Furthermore, early attempts to map individual epitranscriptomes using sequencing-based techniques are largely characterized by the deliberate avoidance of orthogonal approaches aimed at confirming the existence of RNA modifications that have been originally identified.

Improved methodology, the inclusion of various controls, and better mapping algorithms as well as the application of robust statistics for the identification of false-positive RNA modification calls have allowed revisiting original (seminal) publications whose early mapping data allowed making hyperbolic claims about the number, localization and importance of RNA modifications, especially in mRNA. Besides the existence of m6A in mRNA, the detectable incidence of RNA modifications in mRNAs has drastically dropped.

As for m5C, the subject of the manuscript submitted by Zhou et al., its identification in mRNA goes back to Squires et al., 2012 reporting on >10.000 sites in mRNA of a human cancer cell line, followed by intermittent findings reporting on pretty much every number between 0 to > 100.000 m5C sites in different human cell-derived mRNA transcriptomes. The reason for such discrepancy is most likely of a technical nature. Importantly, all studies reporting on actual transcript numbers that were m5C-modified relied on RNA bisulfite sequencing, an NGS-based method, that can discriminate between methylated and non-methylated Cs after chemical deamination of C but not m5C. RNA bisulfite sequencing has a notoriously high background due to deamination artifacts, which occur largely due to incomplete denaturation of double-stranded regions (denaturing-resistant) of RNA molecules. Furthermore, m5C sites in mRNAs have now been mapped to regions that have not only sequence identity but also structural features of tRNAs. Various studies revealed that the highly conserved m5C RNA methyltransferases NSUN2 and NSUN6 do not only accept tRNAs but also other RNAs (including mRNAs) as methylation substrates, which in combination account for most of the RNA bisulfite-mapped m5C sites in human mRNA transcriptomes. Is m5C in mRNA only a result of the Star activity of tRNA or rRNA modification enzymes, or is their low stoichiometry biologically relevant?<br /> In light of the short-comings of existing tools to robustly determine m5C in transcriptomes, other methods, like DRAM-seq, allowing to map m5C independently of ex situ RNA treatment with chemicals, are needed to arrive at a more solid "ground state", from which it will be possible to state and test various hypotheses as to the biological function of m5C, especially in lowly abundant RNAs such as mRNA.

Importantly, the identification of >10.000 sites containing m5C increases through DRAM-Seq, increases the number of potential m5C marks in human cancer cells from a couple of 100 (after rigorous post-hoc analysis of RNA bisulfite sequencing data) by orders of magnitude. This begs the question, whether or not the application of these editing tools results in editing artefacts overstating the number of actual m5C sites in the human cancer transcriptome.

Remaining comments after resubmission:

(1) The use of two m5C reader proteins is likely a reason for the high number of edits introduced by the DRAM-Seq method. Both ALYREF and YBX1 are ubiquitous proteins with multiple roles in RNA metabolism including splicing and mRNA export. It is reasonable to assume that both ALYREF and YBX1 bind to many mRNAs that do not contain m5C.<br /> To substantiate the author's claim that ALYREF or YBX1 binds m5C-modified RNAs to an extent that would allow distinguishing its binding to non-modified RNAs from binding to m5C-modified RNAs, it would be recommendable to provide data on the affinity of these, supposedly proven, m5C readers to non-modified versus m5C-modified RNAs. To do so, this reviewer suggests performing experiments as described in Slama et al., 2020 (doi: 10.1016/j.ymeth.2018.10.020). Mind you that using dot blots like in so many published studies to show modification-specific antibody or protein binding, is insufficient as an argument because no antibody, nor protein encounters nanograms to micrograms of a specific RNA identity in a cell. This issue remains a major caveat in all studies using so-called RNA modification reader proteins as bait for detecting RNA modifications in epitranscriptomics research and becomes a pertinent problem, if used as a platform for base-editing similar to the work presented in this manuscript.

(2) Using sodium arsenite treatment of cells as a means to change the m5C status of transcripts through the downregulation of the two major m5C writer proteins NSUN2 and NSUN6 is problematic and the conclusions from these experiments are not warranted. Sodium arsenite is a chemical that poisons every protein containing thiol groups. Not only do NSUN proteins contain cysteines but also the base editor fusion proteins. Arsenite will inactivate these proteins, hence the editing frequency will drop, as observed in the experiments shown in Figure 5, which the authors explain with fewer m5C sites to be detected by the fusion proteins.

(3) The authors should move high-confidence editing site data contained in Supplementary Tables 2 and 3 into one of the main Figures to substantiate what is discussed in Figure 4A. However, the data needs to be visualized in another way then excel format. Furthermore, Supplementary Table 2 does not contain a description of the columns, while Supplementary Table 3 contains a single row with letters and numbers.

Author response:

The following is the authors’ response to the original reviews.

Reviewer #1:

In this manuscript, Zhou et al describe a deaminase and reader protein-assisted RNA m5C sequencing method. The general strategy is similar to DART-seq for m6A sequencing, but the difference is that in DART-seq, m6A sites are always followed by C which can be deaminated by fused APOBEC1 to provide a high resolution of m6A sites, while in the case of m5C, no such obvious conserved motifs for m5C sites exist, therefore, the detection resolution is much lower. In addition, the authors used two known m5C binding proteins ALYREF and YBX1 to guide the fused deaminases, but it is not clear whether these two binding proteins can bind most m5C sites and compete with other m5C binding proteins.

Thank you for your kind suggestion. RNA affinity chromatography and mass spectrometry analyses using biotin-labelled oligonucleotides with or without m5C were performed in previous reports (doi:10.1038/cr.2017.55 and doi: 10.1038/s41556-019-0361-y), and the results showed that ALYREF and YBX1 had a more prominent binding ability to m5C -modified oligonucleotides. Moreover, these two m5C -binding proteins are also responsible for mRNA m5C binding, so we chose to use their ability to bind targeted m5C to construct a DRAM detection system in anticipation of transcriptome-wide m5C detection. We hope to propose a suitable detection strategy for RNA m5C, and there will certainly be room for optimization of the DRAM system in the future with more in-depth studies of m5C binding proteins. We have discussed the above issue in lines 75-82 and 315-318.

It is well known that two highly modified m5C sites exist in 28S RNA and many m5C sites exist in tRNA, the authors should validate their methods first by detecting these known m5C sites and evaluate the possible false positives in rRNA and tRNA.

Thank you for your kind suggestion. We attempted PCR amplification of sequences flanking m5C sites 3782 and 4447 on 28S rRNA, as well as multiple m5C sites on tRNA, including m5C48 and m5C49 on tRNAVal, m5C48 and m5C49 on tRNAAsp, and m5C48 on tRNALys.

However, Sanger sequencing revealed no valid mutations, which was implemented in Figure S3. We believe this outcome indicates that the DRAM system is more suited for transcriptome-wide m5C detection of mRNAs. This is supported by current reports that ALYREF and YBX1 are responsible for the m5C-binding proteins of mRNAs (doi:10.1038/cr.2017.55 and doi: 10.1038/s41556-019-0361-y). The above results and descriptions were added to lines 136-143.

In mRNA, it is not clear what is the overlap between the technical replicates. In Figures 4A and 4C, they detected more than 10K m5C sites, and most of them did not overlap with sites uncovered by other methods. These numbers are much larger than expected and possibly most of them are false positives.

Thank you for your kind suggestion. We observed significant overlap between the technical repeats by comparing the data across biological repeats, as shown in Figure S4C and described in lines 174-175. We considered m5C modification in a region only when editing events were detected in at least two biological replicates, ensuring a high-stringency screening process (details seen in the revised method in lines 448-455 and Figure 3F). With more in-depth research into m5C readers, we aim to achieve more accurate detection in the future.

Besides, it is not clear what is the detection sensitivity and accuracy since the method is neither single base resolution nor quantitative.

Thank you for your suggestion. As shown in Figure 3G, we found that the editing window of the DRAM system exhibited enrichment of approximately 20 bp upstream and downstream of the m5C site. Previous reports identified Type I m5C sites, which tend to have a downstream "NGGG" motif, and Type II m5C sites, which often contain a downstream "UCCA" motif. However, these m5C motifs do not fully characterize all m5C sites, and their presence downstream of an m5C site is not guaranteed (doi: 10.1038/s41594-019-0218-x). This limitation complicates single-base resolution analysis by the DRAM system. Nevertheless, we believe that with further exploration of m5C sequence features, precise single-base resolution detection can be achieved in the future. This point is also discussed in lines 314-322.

Regarding the quantitative level of the assay, we conducted additional experiments by progressively reducing the expression levels of the fusion proteins. Sanger sequencing revealed that the editing efficiency of A-to-G and C-to-U within the m5C region significantly decreased as fusion protein expression diminished (Figure S9). These findings suggest that the DRAM system's transfection efficiency is concentration-dependent and that the ratio of editing efficiency to transfection efficiency could aid in the quantitative analysis of m5C using the DRAM system. The relative results were supplemented in Figure S9 and discussed in lines 263-271.

There are no experiments to show that the detected m5C sites are responsive to the writer proteins such as NSUN2 and NSUN6, and the determination of the motifs of these writer proteins.

Thank you for your kind suggestion. We have performed a motif enrichment analysis based on the sequences spanning 10 nt upstream and downstream of DRAM-editing sites. The relative results of this analysis were supplemented in Figure S4D and lines 168-171. Unfortunately, we did not identify any clear sequence preferences for the m5C sites catalyzed by the methyltransferases NSUN2 and NSUN6, which have previously been associated with “G”-rich sequences and the “CUCCA” motif. This limitation is mainly due to the DRAM detection system’s inability to achieve single-base resolution for m5C detection, which is also explained in the above response.

Reviewer #2:

(1) The use of two m5C reader proteins is likely a reason for the high number of edits introduced by the DRAM-Seq method. Both ALYREF and YBX1 are ubiquitous proteins with multiple roles in RNA metabolism including splicing and mRNA export. It is reasonable to assume that both ALYREF and YBX1 bind to many mRNAs that do not contain m5C.

To substantiate the author's claim that ALYREF or YBX1 binds m5C-modified RNAs to an extent that would allow distinguishing its binding to non-modified RNAs from binding to m5C-modified RNAs, it would be recommended to provide data on the affinity of these, supposedly proven, m5C readers to non-modified versus m5C-modified RNAs. To do so, this reviewer suggests performing experiments as described in Slama et al., 2020 (doi: 10.1016/j.ymeth.2018.10.020). However, using dot blots like in so many published studies to show modification of a specific antibody or protein binding, is insufficient as an argument because no antibody, nor protein, encounters nanograms to micrograms of a specific RNA identity in a cell. This issue remains a major caveat in all studies using so-called RNA modification reader proteins as bait for detecting RNA modifications in epitranscriptomics research. It becomes a pertinent problem if used as a platform for base editing similar to the work presented in this manuscript.

We thank the reviewer for the valuable suggestion. Previous studies have shown that while ALYREF and YBX1 can bind mRNAs without the m5C modification, their binding affinity for m5C-modified oligonucleotides is significantly higher than for unmethylated controls. This has been demonstrated through experiments such as in vitro tractography, electrophoretic mobility shift assay (EMSA) (doi:10.1038/cr.2017.55), and UHPLC-MRM-MS/MS. Additionally, isothermal titration calorimetry measurements and PAR-CLIP experiments have shown that mutations in the key amino acids responsible for m5C binding in ALYREF and YBX1 result in a significant reduction in their ability to m5C (doi: 10.1038/s41556-019-0361-y).

Although Me-RIP analysis was unsuccessful in our laboratory, likely due to the poor specificity of the m5C antibody, we alternatively performed RNA pulldown experiments. These experiments verified that the ability of DRAMmut-expressing proteins to bind RNA with m5C modification was virtually absent compared to DRAM-expressing proteins, while their binding ability with non-modified RNA was not significantly affected. The relative RNA pulldown results were supplemented in Figure S1E, S1F and lines 110-111. Therefore, we believe that by integrating DRAMmut group, our DRAM system could effectively exclude the false-positive mutations caused by unspecific binding of DRAM’s reader protein to non-m5C-modified mRNAs.

(2) Since the authors use a system that results in transient overexpression of base editor fusion proteins, they might introduce advantageous binding of these proteins to RNAs. It is unclear, which promotor is driving construct expression but it stands to reason that part of the data is based on artifacts caused by overexpression. Could the authors attempt testing whether manipulating expression levels of these fusion proteins results in different editing levels at the same RNA substrate?

Thank you for pointing this out. To investigate how different expression levels of these proteins influence A-to-G and C-to-U editing within the same m5C region, we conducted a gradient transfection using plasmid concentrations of 1500 ng, 750 ng and 300 ng. This approach allowed us to progressively reduce the expression levels of the fusion proteins. Sanger sequencing revealed that the editing efficiency of A-to-G and C-to-U within the m5C region significantly decreased as fusion protein expression diminished. These findings suggest that the transfection efficiency of the DRAM system is concentration-dependent and that the ratio of editing efficiency to transfection efficiency may assist in the quantitative analysis of m5C using the DRAM system. The relative results and hypotheses were added and discussed in Figure S9 and lines 263-271 of the revised manuscript.

(3) Using sodium arsenite treatment of cells as a means to change the m5C status of transcripts through the downregulation of the two major m5C writer proteins NSUN2 and NSUN6 is problematic and the conclusions from these experiments are not warranted. Sodium arsenite is a chemical that poisons every protein containing thiol groups. Not only do NSUN proteins contain cysteines but also the base editor fusion proteins. Arsenite will inactivate these proteins, hence the editing frequency will drop, as observed in the experiments shown in Figure 5, which the authors explain with fewer m5C sites to be detected by the fusion proteins.

Thank you for pointing this out. We used bisulfite sequencing PCR to determine that the m5C levels in RPSA and AP5Z1 were significantly reduced after sodium arsenite treatment. This was followed by a significant decrease in editing frequency detected by the DRAM system in sodium arsenite-treated samples compared to untreated samples. This reduction aligns with the decreased editing efficiency observed in methyltransferase-deficient cells (as shown in Figures 2G and 2H), which initially convinced us that these results reflected the DRAM system's ability to monitor dynamic changes in m5C levels.

However, as the reviewer pointed out, sodium arsenite treatment could potentially inactivate the fusion proteins, leading to the observed reduction in editing efficiency. This possibility has not been conclusively ruled out in our current experiments. Optimizing this validation may require the future development of more specific m5C inhibitors. In light of this, we have revised our previous results and conclusions in lines 235-244, and discussed these points in lines 308-315.

(4) The authors should move high-confidence editing site data contained in Supplementary Tables 2 and 3 into one of the main Figures to substantiate what is discussed in Figure 4A. However, the data needs to be visualized in another way than an Excel format. Furthermore, Supplementary Table 2 does not contain a description of the columns, while Supplementary Table 3 contains a single row with letters and numbers.

Thank you for your kind suggestion. We have visualized the data from Supplementary Tables 2 and 3 into Figure 3F, presenting it as a screening flowchart for high-confidence editing sites. In Supplementary Table 3, we have displayed only the DRAM-mutated genes, which is why it contains a single row with letters and numbers. As requested, we have included descriptions of each column and reorganized the Supplementary table 2 and 3 accordingly.

(5) The authors state that "plotting the distribution of DRAM-seq editing sites in mRNA segments (5'UTR, CDS, and 3'UTR) highlighted a significant enrichment near the initiation codon (Figure 3F).", which is not true when this reviewer looks at Figure 3F.

Thank you for your kind suggestion, and we replaced the expression of " near the initiation codon" with "in the CDS" in lines 192-193.

(6) The authors state that "In contrast, cells expressing the deaminase exhibited a distinct distribution pattern of editing sites, characterized by a prevalence throughout the 5'UTR.", which is not true when this reviewer looks at Figure 3F.

Thank you for your kind suggestion. This distribution was actually characterized by a prevalence throughout the "3'UTR", but not "5'UTR". We have also made the necessary changes in lines 193-195.

(7) The authors claim in the final conclusion: "In summary, we developed a novel deaminase and reader protein assisted RNA m5C methylation approach...", which is not what the method entails. The authors deaminate As or Us close to 5mC sites based on the binding of a deaminase-containing protein.

Thank you for your kind suggestion, and we have made the necessary changes in lines 331-334.

(8) The authors claim that "The data supporting the findings of this study are available within the article and its Supplementary Information." However, no single accession number for the deposited sequencing data can be found in the text or the supplementary data. Without the primary data, none of the claims can be verified.

Thank you for pointing this out. The sequencing data from this study has already been deposited to the GEO database (GEO assession number: GSE254194, GEO token：ororioukbdqtpcn), and we will ensure it is made publicly available in a timely manner.

(a) To underscore point (1), a recent publication (https://doi.org/10.1038/s41419-023-05661-y) reported: "To further identify the potential mRNAs regulated by ALYREF, we performed RNA-seq analysis in control or ALYREF knockdown T24 cells. After knockdown of ALYREF, 143 mRNAs differentially expressed, including 94 downregulated mRNAs (NC reads >100, |Fold change | >1.5, P-value <0.05). Functional enrichment analysis using Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) indicated that regulated mRNAs by ALYREF are chiefly enriched in canonical cancer-related pathways (Fig. S4A), including TGF-β signaling, MAPK signaling, and NF-κB signaling, strongly supporting the oncogenic function of ALYREF in tumor progression. Among these 94 downregulated genes, 11 mRNA showed a significant reduction in m5C methylation after NUSN2 silencing in T24 cells, combined with previously transcriptome-wide RNA-BisSeq data of T24 cells [21] (Fig. 4A)."

These results translate into 94 mRNAs are regulated by ALYREF in bladder cancer-derived cells. From those, very few (11) mRNA identities respond to NSUN2-dependent RNA methylation mediated by ALYREF binding.The question then arises, is that number sufficient to claim that ALYREF is a m5C-binding protein?

And if so, how does the identification of 10.000+ edits by DRAM-Seq compare with the 94 mRNAs that are regulated by ALYREF? Were these 94 mRNAs identified by DRAM-Seq.

Thank you for your kind suggestion. Previous reports by Yang et al. ( doi: 10.1038/cr.2017.55), including the literature you refer to, have detailed the close relationship between ALYREF and m5C modification, and the ALY/REF export factor (ALYREF) was identified as the first nuclear m5C reader, and it was demonstrated that many mRNAs are regulated by ALYREF, and is therefore considered to be an m5C-binding protein.

As required, by comparing the DRAM-edited mRNAs with the reported 94 mRNAs, we found that only 55.32% of the 94 mRNAs regulated by ALYREF could be detected by the DRAM system. This indicates that the DRAM system specifically targets certain mRNAs, as illustrated in Figure S4E. The relevant results were described and discussed in lines 175-179.

(b) Line 123:

"The deep sequencing results showed that the deamination rates of RPSA and SZRD1 were 75.5% and 27.25%, respectively. (Fig. 2A, B)."

The Figure shows exactly the opposite of bisulfite-mediated deamination. These are the cytosines that were not deaminated by the chemical treatment and therefore can be sequenced as cytosines and not thymidines. Hence, the term deamination rate is wrong.

Thank you for your kind suggestion. We have made the necessary change in lines 129-130 to change the deamination rates to m⁵C fraction.

(c) Line 157:

"DRAM-seq analysis further confirmed that DRAM was detected in an m5C-dependent manner, with minimal mutations in AP5Z1 and RPSA mRNAs in methyltransferase knockout cells compared to wild-type cells (Fig. 3C, D)."

There is no indication of what the authors mean by minimal mutation in these Figures. The term "minimal mutation" should be reconsidered as well.

Thank you for your kind suggestion. We intended to express that "Mutations in AP5Z1 and RPSA mRNA are reduced in methyltransferase-deficient cells." There was an issue with the initial formulation, and we have made the necessary changes in lines 165-167.

(d) Line 167:

"To further delineate the characteristics of the DRAM-seq data, we compared the distribution of DRAM-seq editing sites within the gene structure, specifically examining their occurrences in the 5'untranslated region (5'UTR), 3' untranslated region (3'UTR), CDS and ncRNA."

Which part of a coding RNA is meant by "ncRNA"?

Thank you for pointing this out. This was actually the Intergenic or Intron region, but not ncRNA. We have also corrected this labelling in Figure 3G and lines 186-189 of the revised manuscript.

(e) Line 189:

"Subsequently, we assessed the capacity of DRAM-seq to detect m5C on a transcriptome-wide scale, comparing its performance to BS-seq that have been previously reported with great authority."

The term "great authority" is not a scientific term. Please, remove adulation to senior authors.

Thank you for your kind suggestion. We removed this unsuitable expression and made the necessary changes in lines 207-208.

(f) Line 233:

"Several experiments have highlighted the requirement of 100-500 ng of RNA for m5C-RIP-seq, while BS-seq necessitates an even more demanding 500-750 μg of RNA21,25,61."

This reviewer doubts that RNA bisulfite sequencing required half to one mg of RNA input. Please, check these references.

Thank you for your kind suggestion. According to the references, we corrected μg to ng and made the necessary changes in lines 251-252.

(g) Line 247:

"Several experiments have highlighted the requirement of 100-500 ng of RNA for m5C-RIP-seq, while BS-seq necessitates an even more demanding 500-750 μg of RNA21,25,61."

This reviewer doubts that RNA bisulfite sequencing requires half to one mg of RNA input. Please, check these references.

Thank you for your kind suggestion. According to the references, we corrected μg to ng and made the necessary changes in lines 251-252.

(h) Line 292:

"Since m5C lacks a fixed motif, DRAM has an apparent limitation in achieving single-base resolution for detecting m5C."

m5C deposition by NSUN2 and NSUN6 occurs in particular motifs that were coined Type I and II motifs. Hence, this statement is not correct.

Thank you for your kind suggestion. Previous reports identified Type I m5C sites, which tend to have a downstream "NGGG" motif, and Type II m5C sites, which often contain a downstream "UCCA" motif. However, these m5C motifs do not fully characterize all m5C sites, and their presence downstream of an m5C site is not guaranteed (doi: 10.1038/s41594-019-0218-x ). Therefore, we have corrected the expression “fixed motif” to “fixed base composition for characterizing all m5C modification sites” in lines 317.

(i) Line 390:

"1 μl of total cellular RNA was used for sequencing library gene..."

1 uL does not allow us to deduce which RNA mass was used for cDNA synthesis.

Thank you for your kind suggestion. According to our cDNA synthesis protocol, we corrected “1μl” to “1μg” in lines 422-423.

(j) Line 405:

"...was assessed on the Agilent 5400 system (Agilent, USA) and quantified by QPCR (1.5 nM)"

What does the 1.5 nM refer to in this sentence?

Thank you for your kind suggestion. Here, "1.5nM" means that the concentration of the constructed library should be no less than 1.5nM. We have also revised this expression in the methods in lines 436-438.

eLife Assessment

This interesting study focuses on a previously reported positive correlation between translational efficiency and protein noise. This is unexpected as typically noise is inversely related to expression and increasing translation efficiency would increase the protein expression and thus be expected to reduce noise in gene expression. Using mathematical modeling and analysis of experimental data the authors argue that this phenomenon arises due to ribosomal demand. However, the work appears incomplete, with the reviewers having raised questions regarding the validity of the assumptions used in the mathematical model as well as the clarity of the presentation.

Reviewer #1 (Public review):

Summary:

The authors use analysis of existing data, mathematical modelling, and new experiments, to explore the relationship between protein expression noise, translation efficiency, and transcriptional bursting.

Strengths:

The analysis of the old data and the new data presented is interesting and mostly convincing.

Weaknesses:

(1) My main concern is the analysis presented in Figure 4. This is the core of mechanistic analysis that suggests ribosomal demand can explain the observed phenomenon. I am both confused by the assumptions used here and the details of the mathematical modelling used in this section. Firstly, the authors' assumption that the fluctuations of a single gene mRNA levels will significantly affect ribosome demand is puzzling. On average the total level of mRNA across all genes would stay very constant and therefore there are no big fluctuations in the ribosome demand due to the burstiness of transcription of individual genes. Secondly, the analysis uses 19 mathematical functions that are in Table S1, but there are not really enough details for me to understand how this is used, are these included in a TASEP simulation? In what way are mRNA-prev and mRNA-curr used? What is the mechanistic meaning of different terms and exponents? As the authors use this analysis to argue ribosomal demand is at play, I would like this section to be very much clarified.

(2) Overall, the paper is very long and as there are analytical expressions for protein noise (e.g. see Paulsson Nature 2004), some of these results do not need to rely on Gillespie simulations. Protein CV (noise) can be written as three terms representing protein noise contribution, mRNA expression contribution, and bursty transcription contribution. For example, the results in panel 1 are fully consistent with the parameter regime, protein noise is negligible compared to transcriptional noise.

Reviewer #2 (Public review):

This work by Pal et al. studied the relationship between protein expression noise and translational efficiency. They proposed a model based on ribosome demand to explain the positive correlation between them, which is new as far as I realize. Nevertheless, I found the evidence of the main idea that it is the ribosome demand generating this correlation is weak. Below are my major and minor comments.

Major comments:

(1) Besides a hypothetical numerical model, I did not find any direct experimental evidence supporting the ribosome demand model. Therefore, I think the main conclusions of this work are a bit overstated.

(2) I found that the enhancement of protein noise due to high translational efficiency is quite mild, as shown in Figure 6A-B, which makes the biological significance of this effect unclear.

(3) The captions for most of the figures are short and do not provide much explanation, making the figures difficult to read.

(4) It would be helpful if the authors could define the meanings of noise (e.g., coefficient of variation?) and translational efficiency in the very beginning to avoid any confusion. It is also unclear to me whether the noise from the experimental data is defined according to protein numbers or concentrations, which is presumably important since budding yeasts are growing cells.

(5) The conclusions from Figures 1D and 1E are not new. For example, the constant protein noise as a function of mean protein expression is a known result of the two-state model of gene expression, e.g., see Equation (4) in Paulsson, Physics of Life Reviews 2005.

(6) In Figure 4C-D, it is unclear to me how the authors changed the mean protein expression if the translation initiation rate is a function of variation in mRNA number and other random variables.

(7) If I understand correctly, the authors somehow changed the translation initiation rate to change the mean protein expression in Figures 4C-D. However, the authors changed the protein sequences in the experimental data of Figure 6. I am not sure if the comparison between simulations and experimental data is appropriate.

Author response:

Public Reviews:

Reviewer #1 (Public review):

Summary:

The authors use analysis of existing data, mathematical modelling, and new experiments, to explore the relationship between protein expression noise, translation efficiency, and transcriptional bursting.

Strengths:

The analysis of the old data and the new data presented is interesting and mostly convincing.

Thank you for the constructive suggestions and comments. We address the individual comments below.

Weaknesses:

(1) My main concern is the analysis presented in Figure 4. This is the core of mechanistic analysis that suggests ribosomal demand can explain the observed phenomenon. I am both confused by the assumptions used here and the details of the mathematical modelling used in this section. Firstly, the authors' assumption that the fluctuations of a single gene mRNA levels will significantly affect ribosome demand is puzzling. On average the total level of mRNA across all genes would stay very constant and therefore there are no big fluctuations in the ribosome demand due to the burstiness of transcription of individual genes. Secondly, the analysis uses 19 mathematical functions that are in Table S1, but there are not really enough details for me to understand how this is used, are these included in a TASEP simulation? In what way are mRNA-prev and mRNA-curr used? What is the mechanistic meaning of different terms and exponents? As the authors use this analysis to argue ribosomal demand is at play, I would like this section to be very much clarified.

Thank you for raising two important points. Regarding the first point, we agree that the overall ribosome demand in a cell will remain more or less the same even with fluctuations in mRNA levels of a few genes. However, what we refer to in the manuscript is the demand for ribosomes for translating mRNA molecules of a single gene. This demand will vary with the changes in the number of the mRNA molecules of that gene. When the mRNA copy number of the gene is low, the number of ribosomes required for translation is low. At a subsequent timepoint when the mRNA number of the same gene goes up rapidly due to transcriptional bursting, the number of ribosomes required would also increase rapidly. The process of allocation of ribosomes for translation of these mRNA molecules will vary between cells, and this process can lead to increased expression variation of that gene among cells.

Regarding the second point, each of the 19 mathematical functions was individually tested in the TASEP model and stochastic simulation. The parameters ‘mRNA-curr’ and ‘mRNA-prev’ are the mRNA copy numbers at the current time point and the previous time point in the stochastic simulation, respectively. These numbers were calculated from the rate of production of mRNA, which is influenced by the burst frequency and the burst size, as well as the rate of mRNA removal. We would expand this section with explanation for all parameters and terms in the revised manuscript.

(2) Overall, the paper is very long and as there are analytical expressions for protein noise (e.g. see Paulsson Nature 2004), some of these results do not need to rely on Gillespie simulations. Protein CV (noise) can be written as three terms representing protein noise contribution, mRNA expression contribution, and bursty transcription contribution. For example, the results in panel 1 are fully consistent with the parameter regime, protein noise is negligible compared to transcriptional noise.

Thank you for referring to the paper on analytical expressions for protein noise. We introduced translational bursting and ribosome demand in our model, and these are linked to stochastic fluctuations in mRNA and ribosome numbers. In addition, our model couples transcriptional bursting with translational bursting and ribosome demand. Since these processes are all stochastic in nature, we felt that the stochastic simulation would be able to better capture the fluctuations in mRNA and protein expression levels originating from these processes. For consistency, we used stochastic simulations throughout even when the coupling between transcription and translation were not considered.

Reviewer #2 (Public review):

This work by Pal et al. studied the relationship between protein expression noise and translational efficiency. They proposed a model based on ribosome demand to explain the positive correlation between them, which is new as far as I realize. Nevertheless, I found the evidence of the main idea that it is the ribosome demand generating this correlation is weak. Below are my major and minor comments.

Thank you for your helpful suggestions and comments. We note that the direct experimental support required for the ribosome demand model would need experimental setups that are beyond the currently available methodologies. We address the individual comments below.

Major comments:

(1) Besides a hypothetical numerical model, I did not find any direct experimental evidence supporting the ribosome demand model. Therefore, I think the main conclusions of this work are a bit overstated.

Direct experimental evidence of the hypothesis would require generation of ribosome occupancy maps of mRNA molecules at the level of single cells and at time intervals that closely match the burst frequency of the genes. This is beyond the currently available methodologies. However, there are other evidences that support our model. For example, earlier work in cell-free systems have showed that constraining cellular resources required for transcription or translation can increase expression heterogeneity (Caveney et al., 2017). In addition, genome-wide analysis of expression noise in yeast also revealed that the association between protein noise and translational efficiency was highest in the group of genes with the most bursty transcription (Supplementary fig. S20).

(2) I found that the enhancement of protein noise due to high translational efficiency is quite mild, as shown in Figure 6A-B, which makes the biological significance of this effect unclear.

Although we agree with the reviewer’s comment that the effect of translational efficiency on protein noise may not be as substantial as the effect of transcriptional bursting, it has been observed in studies across bacteria, yeast and Arabidopsis (Ozbudak et al., 2003; Blake et al., 2003; Wu et al., 2022). In addition, the relationship between translational efficiency and protein noise is in contrast with the inverse relationship observed between mean expression and noise (Newman et al., 2006; Silander et al., 2012). We also note that the goal of the manuscript was not to evaluate the strength of the association, but to understand the basis of the influence of translational efficiency on protein noise.

(3) The captions for most of the figures are short and do not provide much explanation, making the figures difficult to read.

We will revise the figure captions to include more details as per the reviewer’s suggestion.

(4) It would be helpful if the authors could define the meanings of noise (e.g., coefficient of variation?) and translational efficiency in the very beginning to avoid any confusion. It is also unclear to me whether the noise from the experimental data is defined according to protein numbers or concentrations, which is presumably important since budding yeasts are growing cells.

For all published datasets where we had measurements from a large number of genes/promoters, we used the measures of adjusted noise (for mRNA noise) and Distance-to-median (DM, for protein noise). For experiments that we performed on a limited number of promoters, we used the measure of coefficient of variation (CV) to quantify noise, as calculation of adjusted noise or DM was not possible. Translational efficiency refers to translation rate which is determined by both the translation initiation rate and the translation elongation rate. The noise at the protein level was quantified from the signal intensity of GFP tagged proteins, which was proportional to protein numbers without considering cell volume. For quantification of noise at the mRNA level, single-cell RNA-seq data was used, which provided mRNA numbers in individual cells.

(5) The conclusions from Figures 1D and 1E are not new. For example, the constant protein noise as a function of mean protein expression is a known result of the two-state model of gene expression, e.g., see Equation (4) in Paulsson, Physics of Life Reviews 2005.

Yes, they are not new, but we included these results for setting the baseline for comparison with simulation results that appear in the later part of the manuscript where we included translational bursting and ribosome demand in our models.

(6) In Figure 4C-D, it is unclear to me how the authors changed the mean protein expression if the translation initiation rate is a function of variation in mRNA number and other random variables.

The translation initiation rate varied from a baseline initiation rate depending on the mRNA numbers and other variables. We changed the baseline initiation rate to alter the mean protein expression levels. We will elaborate this section in the revised manuscript.

(7) If I understand correctly, the authors somehow changed the translation initiation rate to change the mean protein expression in Figures 4C-D. However, the authors changed the protein sequences in the experimental data of Figure 6. I am not sure if the comparison between simulations and experimental data is appropriate.

It is an important observation. Even though we changed the translation initiation rate to change the mean expression (Fig. 4C-D), we noted in the description in the model (Fig. 3D) that the changes in the translation initiation rate was also linked with changes in the translation elongation rate. The translation initiation rate can only increase if the ribosomes already bound to the mRNA traverse quicker through the mRNA. This means that an increase in the translation initiation rate will occur only if the translation elongation rate is also increased, which will lead to lower traversal time of the ribosomes through the mRNA (Fig. 3D). Similarly, an increase in the translation elongation rate will allow more ribosomes to initiate translation. Thus, the parameters translation initiation rate and translation elongation rate are interconnected. This has also been observed in an experimental study by Barrington et al. (2023). Having said that, however, the models can also be expressed in terms of the translation elongation rate, instead of the translation initiation rate, and this modification will not change the results of the simulations due to interconnectedness of the initiation rate and the elongation rate.  

References

C. L. Barrington, G. Galindo, A. L. Koch, E. R. Horton, E. J. Morrison, S. Tisa, T. J. Stasevich, O. S. Rissland. Synonymous codon usage regulates translation initiation. Cell Rep. 42, 113413 (2023).

W. J. Blake, M. Kaern, C. R. Cantor, J. J. Collins, Noise in eukaryotic gene expression. Nature 422, 633-637 (2003).

P. M. Caveney, S. E. Norred, C. W. Chin, J. B. Boreyko, B. S. Razooky, S. T. Retterer, C. P. Collier, M. L. Simpson, Resource Sharing Controls Gene Expression Bursting. ACS Synth Biol. 6, 334-343 (2017)

J. R. Newman, S. Ghaemmaghami, J. Ihmels, D. K. Breslow, M. Noble, J. L. DeRisi, J. S. Weissman, Single-cell proteomic analysis of S. cerevisiae reveals the architecture of biological noise. Nature, 441, 840-846 (2006).

E. M. Ozbudak, M. Thattai, I. Kurtser, A. D. Grossman, A. van Oudenaarden, Regulation of noise in the expression of a single gene. Nat Genet. 31, 69-73 (2002).

O. K. Silander, N. Nikolic, A. Zaslaver, A. Bren, I. Kikoin, U. Alon, M. Ackermann, A genome-wide analysis of promoter-mediated phenotypic noise in Escherichia coli. PLoS Genet. 8, e1002443 (2012).

H. W. Wu, E. Fajiculay, J. F. Wu, C. S. Yan, C. P. Hsu, S. H. Wu, Noise reduction by upstream open reading frames. Nat Plants. 8, 474-480 (2022).

The hashtag #HaryanaElectionResult is trending on Twitter due to the recent assembly elections in Haryana, which have garnered significant public interest and engagement. Here are some key reasons for the trend:

Today, we all lost our hero Ratan Tata sir at the age of 86 🥲 I was just doing my work and some friend told me that see the news that Ratan Tata sir is not more.

A few days ago, Ratan Tata had denied reports of him being admitted to ICU.

Ratan Tata Death Latest News Today: In a shocking development, the business tycoon Ratan Tata has passed away on Wednesday, several reports claimed on the Internet.

According to information, Ratan Tata took his last breath at the age of 86.

Author response:

Public Reviews:

Reviewer #1 (Public review)

Summary:

Numerous mechanism and structural studies reported the cooperative role of Oct4 and Sox2 during the establishment of pluripotency during reprogramming. Due to the difficulty in sample collection and RNA-seq with low-number cells, the precise mechanisms remain in early embryos. This manuscript reported the role of OCT4 and SOX2 in mouse early embryos using knockout models with low-input ATAC-seq and RNA-seq. Compared to the control, chromatin accessibility and transcriptome were affected when Oct4 and Sox2 were deleted in early ICM. Specifically, decreased ATAC-seq peaks showed enrichment of Motifs of TF such as OCT, SOX, and OCT-SOX, indicating their importance during early development. Moreover, by deep analysis of ATAC-seq and RNA-seq data, they found Oct4 and Sox2 target enhancer to activate their downstream genes. In addition, they also uncovered the role of OS during development from the morula to ICM, which provided the scientific community with a more comprehensive understanding.

Strengths:

On the whole, the manuscript is innovative, and the conclusions of this paper are mostly well supported by data, however, there are some issues that need to be addressed.

Weaknesses:

Major Points:

(1) In Figure 1, a more detailed description of the knockout strategy should be provided to clarify itself. The knockout strategy in Fig1 is somewhat obscure, such as how is OCT4 inactivated in Oct4mKO2 heterozygotes. As shown in Figure 1, the exon of OCT4 is not deleted, and its promoter is not destroyed. Therefore, how does OCT4 inactivate to form heterozygotes?

Thank you for your kind suggestions. We will add a detailed description of the knockout strategy in the legends for Figure 1A and 1B, as shown below:

Figure 1A. Schemes of mKO2-labeled Oct4 KO (Oct4mKO2) and Oct4 flox alleles. In the Oct4mKO2 allele, a PGK-pac∆tk-P2A-mKO2-pA cassette was inserted 3.6 kb upstream of the Oct4 transcription start site (TSS) and a promoter-less FRT-SA-IRES-hph-P2A-Venus-pA cassette was inserted into Oct4 intron 1. The inclusion of a stop codon followed by three sets of polyadenylation signal sequences (pA) after the Venus cassette ensures both transcriptional and translational termination, effectively blocking the expression of Oct4 exons 2–5.

Figure 1B. Schemes of EGFP-labeled Sox2 KO (Sox2EGFP) and Sox2 flox alleles. In the Sox2EGFP allele, the 5’ untranslated region (UTR), coding sequence and a portion of the 3’ UTR of Sox2 were deleted and replaced with a PGK-EGFP-pA cassette. Notably, 1,023 bp of the Sox2 3’UTR remaine intact.

(2) Is ZP 3-Cre expressed in the zygotes? Is there any residual protein?

Thank you for the question. While we have not directly tested for ZP3-Cre expression in zygotes, the published transcriptome and proteomics data shows that ZP3 is present at both the transcriptional and protein levels in wild-type zygotes (Deng et al., Science, 2014; Gao et al., Cell Reports, 2017). This suggests that ZP3-Cre could potentially be expressed in zygotes as well.

(3) What motifs are enriched in the rising ATAC-seq peaks after knocking out of OCT4 and SOX2?

Thank you for the question. The enriched motifs in the rising ATAC-seq peaking in Oct4 KO and Sox2 KO ICMs are the GATA, TEAD, EOMES and KLF motifs, as shown in Figure 4A and Figure supplement 7.

(4) The ordinate of Fig4c is lost.

Thank you for the question. The y-axis is average normalized signals (reads per million-normalized pileup signals). We will add it in the revised version.

(5) Signals of H3K4me1, H3K27ac, and so on are usually used to define enhancers, and the loci of enhancers vary greatly in different cells. In the manuscript, the authors defined ATAC-seq peaks far from the TSS as enhancers. The definition in this manuscript is not strictly an enhancer.

Thank you for this insightful comment. We will search for and analyze published omics data on H3K4me1 and H3K27ac in early embryos or mouse embryonic stem cells to conduct this analysis.

(6) If Oct4 and Sox2 truly activate sap 30 and Uhrf 1, what effect does interfering with both genes have on gene expression and chromatin accessibility?

Thank you for the interesting question. Unfortunately, we have not conducted this specific experiment, so we do not have direct results. However, Sap30 is a key component of the mSin3A corepressor complex, while Uhrf1 regulates the establishment and maintenance of DNA methylation. Both proteins are known to function as repressors. Therefore, we hypothesize that interfering with these two genes could alleviate repression of some genes, such as trophectoderm markers, similar to what we have observed in Oct4 KO and Sox2 KO ICMs.

Reviewer #2 (Public review):

In this manuscript, Hou et al. investigate the interplay between OCT4 and SOX2 in driving the pluripotent state during early embryonic lineage development. Using knockout (KO) embryos, the authors specifically analyze the transcriptome and chromatin state within the ICM-to-EPI developmental trajectory. They emphasize the critical role of OCT4 and the supportive function of SOX2, along with other factors, in promoting embryonic fate. Although the paper presents high-quality data, several key claims are not well-supported, and direct evidence is generally lacking.

Major Points:

(1) Although the authors claim that both maternal KO and maternal KO/zygotic hetero KO mice develop normally, the molecular changes in these groups appear overestimated. A wildtype control is recommended for a more robust comparison.

Thank you for your valuable feedback. However, I’m unclear on what is meant by “the molecular changes in these groups appear overestimated.” Could the reviewer kindly provide more details or clarify which specific aspects of the molecular changes they are referring to? This would help us better address the concern.

(2) The authors assert that OCT4 and SOX2 activate the pluripotent network via the OCT-SOX enhancer. However, the definition of this enhancer is based solely on proximity to TSSs, which is a rough approximation. Canonical enhancers are typically located in intronic and intergenic regions and marked by H3K4me1 or H3K27ac. Re-analyzing enhancer regions with these standards could be beneficial. Additionally, the definitions of "close to" or "near" in lines 183-184 are unclear and not defined in the legends or methods.

Thank you for this insightful comment. We will search for and analyze published omics data on H3K4me1 and H3K27ac in early embryos or mouse embryonic stem cells to address the concern of “enhancer”.

The definition of "close to" or "near" in lines 183-184 is in the legend of Figure 2E and methods. In the GSEA analysis, Ensembl protein-coding genes with TSSs located within 10 kb of ATAC-seq peak centers were included.

(3) There is no evidence that the decreased peaks/enhancers could be the direct targets of Oct4 and Sox2 throughout this manuscript. Figures 2 and 4 show only minimal peak annotations related to OCT and SOX motifs, and there is a lack of chromatin IP data. Therefore, claims about direct targets are not substantiated and should be appropriately revised.

Thank you for the comment. In Figure Supplement 3C, we analyzed published Sox2 CUT&RUN data from E4.5 ICMs (Li et al., Science, 2023), which demonstrates that the reduced ATAC-seq peaks in our Sox2 KO ICMs are enriched with Sox2 CUT&RUN signals. This data suggests that decreased peaks/enhancers could be the direct targets of Sox2. Unfortunately, we did not to find similar published data for Oct4 in embryos.

(4) Lines 143-146 lack direct data to support the claim. Actually, the main difference in cluster 1, 11 and 3, 8, 14 is whether the peak contains OCT-SOX motif. However, the reviewer cannot get any information of peaks activated by OCT4 rather than SOX2 in cluster 1, 11.

Thank you for the comment. As the reviewer pointed out, we agree that clusters 3, 8, 14 is more enriched with OCT-SOX motifs than clusters 1/11. However, this is consistent with our observation that the accessibility of peaks in clusters 1 and 11 mainly relies on Oct4, while the accessibility of clusters 3, 8, 14 relies on both Oct4 and Sox2. Probably the word “activate” is not accurate. We will rearrange the texts as below:

“Notably, compared to the peaks dependent on Oct4 but not Sox2 (Figure 2B, clusters 1 and 11), those reliant on both Oct4 and Sox2 show greater enrichment of the OCT-SOX motif (Figure 2B, clusters 3, 8 and 14). The former group tended to be already open in the morula, while the latter group became open in the ICM. “

Minor Points:

(1) Lines 153-159: The figure panel does not show obvious enrichment of SOX2 signals or significant differences in H3K27ac signals across clusters, thus not supporting the claim.

Thank you for the comments.

Line 153-159 reference two datasets:  Figure supplement 3C and 3D.

In Figure supplement 3C, the average plots above the heatmaps show that the decreased ATAC-seq peaks exhibited higher enrichment with Sox2 CUT&RUN signals compared to the increased or unchanged peaks.

Regarding Figure supplement 3D, we agree that the H3K27ac signal is only slightly more enriched on the decreased peaks than the unchanged peaks, However, it's important to note that only the top 57,512 strongest of the 142,096 unchanged peaks were included in the analysis. We excluded the weaker unchanged peaks because they are less informative. but if included, they could reduce the average H3K27ac signal for the unchanged peaks.

(2) Lines 189-190: The term "identify" is overstated for the integrative analysis of RNA-seq and ATAC-seq, which typically helps infer TF targets rather than definitively identifying them.

Thank you for the suggestion. We will replace “identify” with “infer”. The revised version is as below:

“In addition, integration of the ATAC-seq and RNA-seq data allowed us to infer previously unknown targets of Oct4 and Sox2, such as Sap30 and Uhrf1, which are essential for somatic cell reprogramming and embryonic development.”

(3) The Discussion is lengthy and should be condensed.

Thank you for the suggestion. We will shorten it.

eLife Assessment

This work presents a valuable finding on how the interplay between transcription factors SOX2 and OCT4 establishes the pluripotency network in early mouse embryos. Despite the high quality of the data, the evidence supporting the claims of the authors is currently incomplete and would benefit from more omics analysis such as H3K4me1 and H3K27ac CUT&Tag. The work will be of interest to biologists working on embryonic development.

Reviewer #1 (Public review):

Summary:

Numerous mechanism and structural studies reported the cooperative role of Oct4 and Sox2 during the establishment of pluripotency during reprogramming. Due to the difficulty in sample collection and RNA-seq with low-number cells, the precise mechanisms remain in early embryos. This manuscript reported the role of OCT4 and SOX2 in mouse early embryos using knockout models with low-input ATAC-seq and RNA-seq. Compared to the control, chromatin accessibility and transcriptome were affected when Oct4 and Sox2 were deleted in early ICM. Specifically, decreased ATAC-seq peaks showed enrichment of Motifs of TF such as OCT, SOX, and OCT-SOX, indicating their importance during early development. Moreover, by deep analysis of ATAC-seq and RNA-seq data, they found Oct4 and Sox2 target enhancer to activate their downstream genes. In addition, they also uncovered the role of OS during development from the morula to ICM, which provided the scientific community with a more comprehensive understanding.

Strengths:

On the whole, the manuscript is innovative, and the conclusions of this paper are mostly well supported by data, however, there are some issues that need to be addressed.

Weaknesses:

Major Points:

(1) In Figure 1, a more detailed description of the knockout strategy should be provided to clarify itself. The knockout strategy in Fig1 is somewhat obscure, such as how is OCT4 inactivated in Oct4mKO2 heterozygotes. As shown in Figure 1, the exon of OCT4 is not deleted, and its promoter is not destroyed. Therefore, how does OCT4 inactivate to form heterozygotes?

(2) Is ZP 3-Cre expressed in the zygotes? Is there any residual protein?

(3) What motifs are enriched in the rising ATAC-seq peaks after knocking out of OCT4 and SOX2?

(4) The ordinate of Fig4c is lost.

(5) Signals of H3K4me1, H3K27ac, and so on are usually used to define enhancers, and the loci of enhancers vary greatly in different cells. In the manuscript, the authors defined ATAC-seq peaks far from the TSS as enhancers. The definition in this manuscript is not strictly an enhancer.

(6) If Oct4 and Sox2 truly activate sap 30 and Uhrf 1, what effect does interfering with both genes have on gene expression and chromatin accessibility？

Reviewer #2 (Public review):

In this manuscript, Hou et al. investigate the interplay between OCT4 and SOX2 in driving the pluripotent state during early embryonic lineage development. Using knockout (KO) embryos, the authors specifically analyze the transcriptome and chromatin state within the ICM-to-EPI developmental trajectory. They emphasize the critical role of OCT4 and the supportive function of SOX2, along with other factors, in promoting embryonic fate. Although the paper presents high-quality data, several key claims are not well-supported, and direct evidence is generally lacking.

Major Points:

(1) Although the authors claim that both maternal KO and maternal KO/zygotic hetero KO mice develop normally, the molecular changes in these groups appear overestimated. A wildtype control is recommended for a more robust comparison.

(2) The authors assert that OCT4 and SOX2 activate the pluripotent network via the OCT-SOX enhancer. However, the definition of this enhancer is based solely on proximity to TSSs, which is a rough approximation. Canonical enhancers are typically located in intronic and intergenic regions and marked by H3K4me1 or H3K27ac. Re-analyzing enhancer regions with these standards could be beneficial. Additionally, the definitions of "close to" or "near" in lines 183-184 are unclear and not defined in the legends or methods.

(3) There is no evidence that the decreased peaks/enhancers could be the direct targets of Oct4 and Sox2 throughout this manuscript. Figures 2 and 4 show only minimal peak annotations related to OCT and SOX motifs, and there is a lack of chromatin IP data. Therefore, claims about direct targets are not substantiated and should be appropriately revised.

(4) Lines 143-146 lack direct data to support the claim. Actually, the main difference in cluster I, 11 and 3, 8, 14 is whether the peak contains OCT-SOX motif. However, the reviewer cannot get any information of peaks activated by OCT4 rather than SOX2 in cluster I, 11.

Minor Points:

(1) Lines 153-159: The figure panel does not show obvious enrichment of SOX2 signals or significant differences in H3K27ac signals across clusters, thus not supporting the claim.

(2) Lines 189-190: The term "identify" is overstated for the integrative analysis of RNA-seq and ATAC-seq, which typically helps infer TF targets rather than definitively identifying them.

(3) The Discussion is lengthy and should be condensed.

eLife Assessment

This valuable study provides a detailed picture of the synapse distributions for a set of visual projection neurons and their downstream partners, in combination with multi-compartmental modelling fitted to electrophysiological data. The model reveals interesting consequences of synapse topography for neuronal computation. The analysis, however, seems incomplete as the authors only analyze passive models of these spiking neurons, and do not attempt to connect their analysis to the bigger picture at the behavioral level.

Reviewer #1 (Public review):

Summary:

This study makes use of the EM reconstruction of the fly brain to investigate the morphology and topography of the synapses between retinotopic, loom-sensitive visual projection neurons (VPNs) and downstream descending neurons (DNs). The authors analyzed the distribution of synapses on the dendritic trees of DNs and performed multi-compartmental modelling to study the implications of the synaptic arrangements for neuronal integration of input signals.

Until recently, it has been unclear how spatial information is passed from retinotopic loom-sensitive neurons to descending neurons because the axons of the VPNs terminate in small optic glomeruli with no apparent topographic organization. It has recently been shown that synaptic weight gradients of VPNs connecting to DNs are the main mechanisms that allow for directed behavioral output (Dombrovski et al.). This study now goes one step further to determine if precise synapse location on the dendritic tree contributes further to the information processing. The study suggests that (1) none of the VPNs investigated show a retinotopic organization of synapses on DN dendrites. (2) Synapses of single VPNs are locally clustered. (3) Initial EPSPs at the synaptic location have, as expected, varying amplitudes but the amplitudes are passively normalized and only cover a small range when measured at the SIZ. (4) A near random distribution of synapses allows for linear integration of synaptic inputs when only a few VPNs are activated.

Strengths:

This study provides a detailed picture of the synapse distribution for a set of VPN and DN pairs, in combination with multi-compartmental modelling fitted to electrophysiological data. The data and methods are clear. The findings are overall interesting. The computational pipeline, which should ideally be made publicly available, will allow the community to make similar analyses on different neuronal classes, which will facilitate the detection of more general mechanisms of dendritic computation.

Weaknesses:

- In my opinion, we need more detail on the electrophysiological data and the fitting of the multi-compartmental model, which is the foundation of large parts of the study.<br /> - The study shows that the synapses of an individual VPN are locally clustered and suggests this as evidence for clustering of synapses of similar tuning (as has been shown previously in other systems). I am not fully convinced by the arguments here, since synapses of a single neuron are by necessity not randomly distributed in space.<br /> - As written, it was in parts unclear to me what the main hypotheses and conclusions were - e.g., how would a retinotopic distribution of synapses on dendritic trees contribute to information processing? Are the model predictions in line with the presumed behavioural role of these neurons?

Reviewer #2 (Public review):

Summary:

This article investigates the distribution of synapses on the dendritic arbors of descending neurons in the looming circuit of the fly visual system. The authors use publicly available EM reconstruction data of the adult fly brain to identify the positions of synapses from several types of visual projection neuron (VPN) to descending neuron (DN) connections. VPN dendrites are retinotopically organized, and axons from different VPN populations innervate distinct optic glomeruli. Yet the authors did not find any retinotopic organization of the synapses in the VPN-DN pairs they analyzed. They then constructed passive electrical models of the DNs with their structures extracted from the EM reconstructions. They focused on two specific DNs and parameterized their models by conducting whole-cell recordings within a voltage range below spiking threshold. Simulation of these passive models showed that irrespective of the location of a synapse, EPSPs became very similar at the spike initiation zone. This is consistent with the idea of synaptic democracy where EPSPs at far away synapses have higher amplitude compared to those nearer to the spike initiation zone so that they all attenuate to similar amplitudes while reaching there. The authors found that activating synapses from individual VPNs have the same effect as activating a random set of synapses. They conclude that despite some clustering of VPN synapses at small scale, they are distributed randomly over the dendritic arbor of DNs so that their EPSP amplitude encode the number of activated synapses, avoiding sublinearity from shunting effect.

Strengths:

- Experimental confirmation of the location of the spike initiation zone in the DN arbors is interesting and may provide better understanding of signal processing in these neurons.<br /> - Passive parameters obtained through electrophysiological recordings are useful.<br /> - These morphologically detailed single neuron models, if made available publicly, will be beneficial for building more complete models to understand the fly visual circuit.<br /> - The authors have complemented the work of Dombrovski et al by analyzing the distribution of synapses in more detail from EM data for a different set of neurons.

Weaknesses:

DNs are upstream of motorneurons, and one would expect, as demonstrated by Dombrovski et al, that specific DNs being activated by input from specific regions of the visual field will activate motoneurons so that the fly moves away from a looming object.

The current work analyzed the synapse distribution on two DNs that do not seem to have such role, and emphasize the lack of retinotopy. However, it is not clear why one would expect retinotopy in synapse location on the dendritic arbor. The comparison with mammalian visual circuits is not appropriate because those layers are extracting more and more complex visual features, whereas Drosophila DNs are supposed to drive motoneurons to generate suitable escape behavior.

- The authors do not suggest the functional roles of these DNs in controlling the movement of the fly. They argue that the synapse distribution and the passive electrotonic structure of these neurons are optimized to make the composite EPSP encode the number of activated synapses, but do not explain why this is important.

- Although DNs are spiking neurons, the authors limit their work to the subthreshold passive domain. If the EPSP at the spike initiation zone crosses spiking threshold, will encoding the number of synapses in EPSP amplitude still matter? Will it matter either if the composite EPSP remains subthreshold?

- The temporal aspect of the input has been ignored by the authors in their simulations. First, it is not clear all the synapses from a single VPN should get activated together. One would expect a spike in a VPN to arrive at different synapses with different time delays depending on their electrotonic distance from the spike initiation zone and the signal propagation speed in the neurites.

A looming stimulus should be expanding with time, but from the description of the simulations it does not seem that the authors have tried to incorporate this aspect in their design of the synaptic activation.

- The suggestion in the abstract that linear encoding of synapse number is default strategy which is then tuned by active properties and plasticity seems strange. Developmentally active properties do not get inserted into passive neurons.

- Much of the analysis (Figures 4, 5, 12) show relationships with physical distance along dendrite. In studying passive neurons it is more informative to use electrotonic distance which provides better insight.

Author response:

We thank the editors and reviewers for their valuable feedback and are committed to addressing their suggestions in a revised manuscript. We appreciate the reviewers’ recognition of the value of our findings, including the insights into the consequences of synaptic topography and the investigation of spike initiation zones in DNs, which further advance our understanding of signal processing. Our studies offer broader insights into synaptic organization and its significance for dendritic integration in an ethologically relevant context.

We particularly appreciate the reviewer's suggestion to elaborate on the electrophysiological properties of DNs and to consider the electrotonic distance in our analysis. We also thank the reviewers for highlighting points that need clarification. In short, our models suggest that DNs effectively distribute synapses to maintain linear encoding of synapse numbers when multiple synapses are coactivated. This supports the results of an earlier study suggesting that synapse number gradients encode the location of an approaching stimulus in these neurons (Dombrovski et al., 2023).

We also agree with the reviewers that the temporal activation of synapses is highly relevant for this system. However, we have focused on synaptic topography because the characterization of temporal patterns of VPN activity is currently lacking in the field. A more detailed investigation of temporal dynamics is therefore beyond the scope of this study.

With the publication of the reviewed preprint, we have now made the computational pipeline and models available on GitHub (https://github.com/AusbornLab/VPN-DN-synapse-normalization).

Reference

Dombrovski M, Peek MY, Park J-Y, Vaccari A, Sumathipala M, Morrow C, Breads P, Zhao A, Kurmangaliyev YZ, Sanfilippo P, Rehan A, Polsky J, Alghailani S, Tenshaw E, Namiki S, Zipursky SL, Card GM. 2023. Synaptic gradients transform object location to action. Nature 613:534–542. doi:10.1038/s41586-022-05562-8

eLife Assessment

This valuable study on strategies used by Pseudomonas to subvert hots immunity identifies a new immune evasion strategy. The study presents solid evidence on the cleavage of VgrG2B by Caspase 11 and the generation of fragments that inhibit activity of the NLRP3 inflammasome. This work should be of interest to immunologists and microbiologists.

Reviewer #1 (Public review):

In the manuscript entitled "A VgrG2b fragment cleaved by caspase-11/4 promotes Pseudomonas aeruginosa infection through suppressing the NLRP3 inflammasome", Qian et al. found an activation of the non-canonical inflammasome, but not the downstream NLRP3 inflammasome, during the infection of macrophage by P. aeruginosa, which is in sharp contrast to that by E. coli (Figure 1). In realizing that the suppression of the NLRP3 inflammasome is Caspase-11 dependent, the authors performed a screening among P. aeruginosa proteins and identified VgrG2b being a major substrate of Caspase-11 (Figure 2). Next, the authors mapped the cleavage site on VgrG2b to D883, and demonstrated that cleavage of VgrG2b by Caspase-11 is essential for the suppression of the NLRP3 inflammasome (Figure 3). Furthermore, they found that a binding between the C-terminal fragment of the cleaved VgrG2b and NLRP3 existed (Figure 4), which was then proved to block the association of NLRP3 with NEK7 (Figure 5). Finally, the authors demonstrated that blocking of VgrG2b cleavage, by either mutation of the D883 or administration of a designed peptide, effectively improved the survival rate of the P. aeruginosa-infected mice (Figure 6). This is a well-designed and executed study, with the results clearly presented and stated.

Reviewer #2 (Public review):

Summary:

In their manuscript, Quian and colleagues identified a novel mechanism by which Pseudomonas control inflammatory responses upon inflammasome activation. They identified a caspase-11 substrate (VgrG2b) which, upon cleavage, binds and inhibits the NLRP3 to reduce the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines. This is a unique mechanism that allows for the tailoring of the innate immune response upon bacterial recognition.

Strengths:

The authors are presenting here a novel conceptual framework in host-pathogen interactions. Their work is supported by a range of approaches (biochemical, cellular immunology, microbiology, animal models), and their conclusions are supported by multiple independent evidences. The work is likely to have an important impact on the innate immunity field and host-pathogen interactions field and may guide the development of novel inhibitors.

Weaknesses:

Although quite exhaustive, a few of the authors' conclusions are not fully supported (e.g., caspase-11 directly cleaving VgrG2b, the unique affinity of VgrG2b-C for NLRP3) and would require complementary approaches to validate their findings fully. This is minimal.

eLife Assessment

Wang et al's study addresses an important critical gap in our understanding of de novo epithelial polarization using MDCK cell doublets surrounded by ECM, providing convincing evidence through imaging and depletion studies on the role of conserved polarity proteins and the centrosome during this process. While the authors propose a clear hierarchical model, there is a need for further exploration of how microtubule organization contributes to this process. Specifically, live cell imaging of microtubules under mutants and their included ECM conditions, along with a more precise temporal mapping of microtubule dynamics in relation to proteins like Gp135, would strengthen the study's conclusions.

Reviewer #1 (Public review):

Summary:

Wang, Po-Kai, et al., utilized the de novo polarization of MDCK cells cultured in Matrigel to assess the interdependence between polarity protein localization, centrosome positioning, and apical membrane formation. They show that the inhibition of Plk4 with Centrinone does not prevent apical membrane formation, but does result in its delay, a phenotype the authors attribute to the loss of centrosomes due to the inhibition of centriole duplication. However, the targeted mutagenesis of specific centrosome proteins implicated in the positioning of centrosomes in other cell types (CEP164, ODF2, PCNT, and CEP120) did not affect centrosome positioning in 3D cultured MDCK cells. A screen of proteins previously implicated in MDCK polarization revealed that the polarity protein Par-3 was upstream of centrosome positioning, similar to other cell types.

Strengths:

The investigation into the temporal requirement and interdependence of previously proposed regulators of cell polarization and lumen formation is valuable to the community. Wang et al., have provided a detailed analysis of many of these components at defined stages of polarity establishment. Furthermore, the generation of PCNT, p53, ODF2, Cep120, and Cep164 knockout MDCK cell lines is likely valuable to the community.

Weaknesses:

Additional quantifications would highly improve this manuscript, for example it is unclear whether the centrosome perturbation affects gamma tubulin levels and therefore microtubule nucleation, it is also not clear how they affect the localization of the trafficking machinery/polarity proteins. For example, in Figure 4, the authors measure the intensity of Gp134 at the apical membrane initiation site following cytokinesis, but there is no measure of Gp134 at the centrosome prior to this.

Reviewer #2 (Public review):

Summary:

The authors decoupled several players that are thought to contribute to the establishment of epithelial polarity and determined their causal relationship. This provides a new picture of the respective roles of junctional proteins (Par3), the centrosome, and endomembrane compartments (Cdc42, Rab11, Gp135) from upstream to downstream.<br /> Their conclusions are based on live imaging of all players during the early steps of polarity establishment and on the knock-down of their expression in the simplest ever model of epithelial polarity: a cell doublet surrounded by ECM.

The position of the centrosome is often taken as a readout for the orientation of the cell polarity axis. There is a long-standing debate about the actual role of the centrosome in the establishment of this polarity axis. Here, using a minimal model of epithelial polarization, a doublet of daugthers MDCK cultured in Matrigel, the authors made several key observations that bring new light to our understanding of a mechanism that has been studied for many years without being fully explained:

(1) They showed that centriole can reach their polarized position without most of their microtubule-anchoring structures. These observations challenge the standard model according to which centrosomes are moved by the production and transmission of forces along microtubules.

(2) (However) they showed that epithelial polarity can be established in the absence of centriole.

(3) (Somehow more expectedly) they also showed that epithelial polarity can't be established in the absence of Par3.

(4) They found that most other polarity players that are transported through the cytoplasm in lipid vesicles, and finally fused to the basal or apical pole of epithelial cells, are moved along an axis which is defined by the position of centrosome and orientation of microtubules.

(5) Surprisingly, two non-daughters cells that were brought in contact (for 6h) could partially polarize by recruiting a few Par3 molecules but not the other polarity markers.

(6) Even more surprisingly, in the absence of ECM, Par 3 and centrosomes could move to their proper position close to the intercellular junction after cytokinesis but other polarity markers (at least GP135) localized to the opposite, non-adhesive, side. So the polarity of the centrosome-microtubule network could be dissociated from the localisation of GP135 (which was believed to be transported along this network).

Strengths:

(1) The simplicity and reproducibility of the system allow a very quantitative description of cell polarity and protein localisation.

(2) The experiments are quite straightforward, well-executed, and properly analyzed.

(3) The writing is clear and conclusions are convincing.

Weaknesses:

(1) The simplicity of the system may not capture some of the mechanisms involved in the establishment of cell polarity in more physiological conditions (fluid flow, electrical potential, ion gradients,...).

(2) The absence of centriole in centrinone-treated cells might not prevent the coalescence of centrosomal protein in a kind of MTOC which might still orient microtubules and intracellular traffic. How are microtubules organized in the absence of centriole? If they still form a radial array, the absence of a centriole at the center of it somehow does not conflict with classical views in the field.

(3) The mechanism is still far from clear and this study shines some light on our lack of understanding. Basic and key questions remain:<br /> a) How is the centrosome moved toward the Par3-rich pole? This is particularly difficult to answer if the mechanism does not imply the anchoring of MTs to the centriole or PCM.<br /> b) What happens during cytokinesis that organises Par3 and intercellular junction in a way that can't be achieved by simply bringing two cells together? In larger epithelia cells have neighbours that are not daughters, still, they can form tight junctions with Par3 which participates in the establishment of cell polarity as much as those that are closer to the cytokinetic bridge (as judged by the overall cell symmetry). Is the protocol of cell aggregation fully capturing the interaction mechanism of non-daughter cells?

Reviewer #3 (Public review):

Here, Wang et al. aim to clarify the role of the centrosome and conserved polarity regulators in apical membrane formation during the polarization of MDCK cells cultured in 3D. Through well-presented and rigorous studies, the authors focused on the emergence of polarity as a single MDCK cell divided in 3D culture to form a two-cell cyst with a nascent lumen. Focusing on these very initial stages, rather than in later large cyst formation as in most studies, is a real strength of this study. The authors found that conserved polarity regulators Gp135/podocalyxin, Crb3, Cdc42, and the recycling endosome component Rab11a all localize to the centrosome before localizing to the apical membrane initiation site (AMIS) following cytokinesis. This protein relocalization was concomitant with a repositioning of centrosomes towards the AMIS. In contrast, Par3, aPKC, and the junctional components E-cadherin and ZO1 localize directly to the AMIS without first localizing to the centrosome. Based on the timing of the localization of these proteins, these observational studies suggested that Par3 is upstream of centrosome repositioning towards the AMIS and that the centrosome might be required for delivery of apical/luminal proteins to the AMIS.

To test this hypothesis, the authors generated numerous new cell lines and/or employed pharmacological inhibitors to determine the hierarchy of localization among these components. They found that removal of the centrosome via centrinone treatment severely delayed and weakened the delivery of Gp135 to the AMIS and single lumen formation, although normal lumenogenesis was apparently rescued with time. This effect was not due to the presence of CEP164, ODF2, CEP120, or Pericentrin. Par3 depletion perturbed the repositioning of the centrosome towards the AMIS and the relocalization of the Gp135 and Rab11 to the AMIS, causing these proteins to get stuck at the centrosome. Finally, the authors culture the MDCK cells in several ways (forced aggregation and ECM depleted) to try and further uncouple localization of the pertinent components, finding that Par3 can localize to the cell-cell interface in the absence of cell division. Par3 localized to the edge of the cell-cell contacts in the absence of ECM and this localization was not sufficient to orient the centrosomes to this site, indicating the importance of other factors in centrosome recruitment.

Together, these data suggest a model where Par3 positions the centrosome at the AMIS and is required for the efficient transfer of more downstream polarity determinants (Gp135 and Rab11) to the apical membrane from the centrosome. The authors present solid and compelling data and are well-positioned to directly test this model with their existing system and tools. In particular, one obvious mechanism here is that centrosome-based microtubules help to efficiently direct the transport of molecules required to reinforce polarity and/or promote lumenogenesis. This model is not really explored by the authors except by Pericentrin and subdistal appendage depletion and the authors do not test whether these perturbations affect centrosomal microtubules. Exploring the role of microtubules in this process could considerably add to the mechanisms presented here. In its current state, this paper is a careful observation of the events of MCDK polarization and will fill a knowledge gap in this field. However, the mechanism could be significantly bolstered with existing tools, thereby elevating our understanding of how polarity emerges in this system.

eLife Assessment

This important study shows that Toxoplasma gondii uses paracrine mechanisms, in addition to cell-intrinsic methods, to evade the host immune system, with MYR1 playing a key role in transporting effector molecules into host cells. The authors present convincing evidence that in vivo, MYR1-deficient parasites can be rescued by wild-type parasites, revealing a limitation in pooled CRISPR screens, where such paracrine effects may obscure the identification of key parasite pathways involved in immune evasion.

Reviewer #1 (Public review):

Previous studies have highlighted some of these paracrine activities of Toxoplasma - and Rasogi et al (mBio, 2020) used a single cell sequencing approach of cells infected in vitro with the WT or MYR KO parasites - and one of their conclusions was that MYR-1 dependent paracrine activities counteract ROP-dependent processes. Similarly, Chen et al (JEM 2020) highlighted that a particular rhoptry protein (ROP16) could be injected into uninfected macrophages and move them to an anti-inflammatory state that might benefit the parasite.

There are caveats around immunity and as yet no insight into how this works. In Figure 2 there is a marked defect in the ability of the parasites to expand at day 2 and day 5. Together, these data sets suggest that this paracrine effect mediated by MYR-1 works early - well before the development of adaptive responses.

Reviewer #2 (Public review):

Summary:

In this manuscript by Torelli et al., the authors propose that the major function of MYR1 and MYR1-dependent secreted proteins is to contribute to parasite survival in a paracrine manner rather than to protect parasites from cell-autonomous immune response. The authors conclude that these paracrine effects rescue ∆MYR1 or knockouts of MYR1-dependent effectors within pooled in vivo CRISPR screens.

Strengths:

The authors raised a more general concern that pooled CRISPR screens (not only in Toxoplasma but also other microbes or cancers) would miss important genes by "paracrine masking effect". Although there is no doubt that pooled CRISPR screens (especially in vivo CRISPR screens) are powerful techniques, I think this topic could be of interest to those fields and researchers.

Weaknesses:

In this version, the reviewer is not entirely convinced of the 'paracrine masking effect' because the in vivo experiments should include appropriate controls (see major point 2).

(1) It is convincing that co-infection of WT and ∆MYR1 parasites could rescue the growth of ∆MYR1 in mice shown by in vivo luciferase imaging. Also, this is consistent with ∆MYR1 parasites showing no in vivo fitness defect in the in vivo CRISPR screens conducted by several groups. Meanwhile, it has been reported previously and shown in this manuscript that ∆MYR1 parasites have an in vitro growth defect; however, ∆MYR1 parasites show no in vitro fitness defect the in vitro pooled CRISPR screen. The authors show that the competition defect of ∆MYR1 parasites cannot be rescued by co-infection with WT parasites in Figure 1c, which might indicate that no paracrine rescue occurred in an in vitro environment. The authors seem not to mention these discrepancies between in vitro CRISPR screens and in vitro competition assays. Why do ∆MYR1 parasites possess neutral in vitro fitness scores in in vitro CRISPR screens? Could the authors describe a reasonable hypothesis?

(2) The authors developed a mixed infection assay with an inoculum containing a 20:80 ratio of ΔMYR1-Luc parasites with either WT parasites or ΔMYR1 mutants not expressing luciferase, showing that the in vivo growth defect of ∆MYR1 parasites is rescued by the presence of WT parasites. Since this experiment lacks appropriate controls, interpretation could be difficult. Is this phenomenon specific to MYR1? If a co-inoculum of ∆GRA12-Luc with either WT parasites or GRA12 parasites not expressing luciferase is included, the data could be appropriately interpreted.

(3) In the Discussion part, the authors argue that the rescue phenotype of mixed infection is not due to co-infection of host cells (lines 307-310). This data is important to support the authors' paracrine hypothesis and should be shown in the main figure.

(4) In the Discussion part, the authors assume that the rescue phenotype is the result of multiple MYR1-dependent effectors. I admit that this hypothesis could be possible since a recently published paper described the concerted action of numerous MYR1-dependent or independent effectors contributing to the hypermigration of infected cells (Ten Hoeve et al., mBio, 2024). I think this paragraph would be kind of overstated since the authors did not test any of the candidate effectors. Since the authors possess ∆IST parasites, they can test whether IST is involved in the "paracrine masking effect" or not to support their claim.

eLife Assessment

This important study reports a detailed quantification of the population dynamics of Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium in mice. Bacterial burden and founding population sizes across various organs were quantified, revealing pathways of dissemination and reseeding of the gastrointestinal tract from systemic organs. Using various techniques, including genetic distance measurements, the authors present compelling evidence to support their conclusions, thus presenting new knowledge that will be of broad interest to scientists focusing on infectious diseases.

Reviewer #1 (Public review):

Hotinger et al. explore the population dynamics of Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium in mice using genetically tagged bacteria. In addition to physiological observations, pathology assessments, and CFU measurements, the study emphasizes quantifying host bottleneck sizes that limit Salmonella colonization and dissemination. The authors also investigate the genetic distances between bacterial populations at various infection sites within the host.

Initially, the study confirms that pretreatment with the antibiotic streptomycin before inoculation via orogastric gavage increases the bacterial burden in the gastrointestinal (GI) tract, leading to more severe symptoms and heightened fecal shedding of bacteria. This pretreatment also significantly reduces between-animal variation in bacterial burden and fecal shedding. The authors then calculate founding population sizes across different organs, discovering a severe bottleneck in the intestine, with founding populations reduced by approximately 10^6-fold compared to the inoculum size. Streptomycin pretreatment increases the founding population size and bacterial replication in the GI tract. Moreover, by calculating genetic distances between populations, the authors demonstrate that, in untreated mice, Salmonella populations within the GI tract are genetically dissimilar, suggesting limited exchange between colonization sites. In contrast, streptomycin pretreatment reduces genetic distances, indicating increased exchange.

In extraintestinal organs, the bacterial burden is generally not substantially increased by streptomycin pretreatment, with significant differences observed only in the mesenteric lymph nodes and bile. However, the founding population sizes in these organs are increased. By comparing genetic distances between organs, the authors provide evidence that subpopulations colonizing extraintestinal organs diverge early after infection from those in the GI tract. This hypothesis is further tested by measuring bacterial burden and founding population sizes in the liver and GI tract at 5 and 120 hours post-infection. Additionally, they compare orogastric gavage infection with the less injurious method of infection via drinking, finding similar results for CFUs, founding populations, and genetic distances. These results argue against injuries during gavage as a route of direct infection.

To bypass bottlenecks associated with the GI tract, the authors compare intravenous (IV) and intraperitoneal (IP) routes of infection. They find approximately a 10-fold increase in bacterial burden and founding population size in immune-rich organs with IV/IP routes compared to orogastric gavage in streptomycin-pretreated animals. This difference is interpreted as a result of "extra steps required to reach systemic organs."

While IP and IV routes yield similar results in immune-rich organs, IP infections lead to higher bacterial burdens in nearby sites, such as the pancreas, adipose tissue, and intraperitoneal wash, as well as somewhat increased founding population sizes. The authors correlate these findings with the presence of white lesions in adipose tissue. Genetic distance comparisons reveal that, apart from the spleen and liver, IP infections lead to genetically distinct populations in infected organs, whereas IV infections generally result in higher genetic similarity.

Finally, the authors investigate GI tract reseeding, identifying two distinct routes. They observe that the GI tracts of IP/IV-infected mice are colonized either by a clonal or a diversely tagged bacterial population. In clonally reseeded animals, the genetic distance within the GI tract is very low (often zero) compared to the bile population, which is predominantly clonal or pauciclonal. These animals also display pathological signs, such as cloudy/hardened bile and increased bacterial burden, leading the authors to conclude that the GI tract was reseeded by bacteria from the gallbladder bile. In contrast, animals reseeded by more complex bacterial populations show that bile contributes only a minor fraction of the tags. Given the large founding population size in these animals' GI tracts, which is larger than in orogastrically infected animals, the authors suggest a highly permissive second reseeding route, largely independent of bile. They speculate that this route may involve a reversal of known mechanisms that the pathogen uses to escape from the intestine.

The manuscript presents a substantial body of work that offers a meticulously detailed understanding of the population dynamics of S. Typhimurium in mice. It quantifies the processes shaping the within-host dynamics of this pathogen and provides new insights into its spread, including previously unrecognized dissemination routes. The methodology is appropriate and carefully executed, and the manuscript is well-written, clearly presented, and concise. The authors' conclusions are well-supported by experimental results and thoroughly discussed. This work underscores the power of using highly diverse barcoded pathogens to uncover the within-host population dynamics of infections and will likely inspire further investigations into the molecular mechanisms underlying the bottlenecks and dissemination routes described here.

Major point:

Substantial conclusions in the manuscript rely on genetic distance measurements using the Cavalli-Sforza chord distance. However, it is unclear whether these genetic distance measurements are independent of the founding population size. I would anticipate that in populations with larger founding population sizes, where the relative tag frequencies are closer to those in the inoculum, the genetic distances would appear smaller compared to populations with smaller founding sizes independent of their actual relatedness. This potential dependency could have implications for the interpretation of findings, such as those in Figures 2B and 2D, where antibiotic-pretreated animals consistently exhibit higher founding population sizes and smaller genetic distances compared to untreated animals.

Reviewer #2 (Public review):

In this paper, Hotinger et. al. propose an improved barcoded library system, called STAMPR, to study Salmonella population dynamics during infection. Using this system, the authors demonstrate significant diversity in the colonization of different Salmonella clones (defined by the presence of different barcodes) not only across different organs (liver, spleen, adipose tissues, pancreas, and gall bladder) but also within different compartments of the same gastrointestinal tissue. Additionally, this system revealed that microbiota competition is the major bottleneck in Salmonella intestinal colonization, which can be mitigated by streptomycin treatment. However, this has been demonstrated previously in numerous publications. They also show that there was minimal sharing between populations found in the intestine and those in the other organs. Upon IV and IP infection to bypass the intestinal bottleneck, they were able to demonstrate, using this library, that Salmonella can renter the intestine through two possible routes. One route is essentially the reverse path used to escape the gut, leading to a diverse intestinal population; while the other, through the bile, typically results in a clonal population. Although the authors showed that the STAMPR pipeline improved the ability to identify founder populations and their diversity within the same animal during infections, some of the conclusions appear speculative and not fully supported.

(1) It's particularly interesting how the authors, using this system, demonstrate the dominant role of the microbiota bottleneck in Salmonella colonization and how it is widened by antibiotic treatment (Figure 1). Additionally, the ability to track Salmonella reseeding of the gut from other organs starting with IV and IP injections of the pathogen provides a new tool to study population dynamics (Figure 5). However, I don't think it is possible to argue that the proximal and distal small intestine, Peyer's patches (PPs), cecum, colon, and feces have different founder populations for reasons other than stochastic variations. All the barcoded Salmonella clones have the same fitness and the fact that some are found or expanded in one region of the gastrointestinal tract rather than another likely results from random chance - such as being forced in a specific region of the gut for physical or spatial reasons-and subsequent expansion, rather than any inherent biological cause. For example, some bacteria may randomly adhere to the mucus, some may swim toward the epithelial layer, while others remain in the lumen; all will proliferate in those respective sites. In this way, different founder populations arise based on random localization during movement through the gastrointestinal tract, which is an observation, but it doesn't significantly contribute to understanding pathogen colonization dynamics or pathogenesis. Therefore, I would suggest placing less emphasis on describing these differences or better discussing this aspect, especially in the context of the gastrointestinal tract.

(2) I do think that STAMPR is useful for studying the dynamics of pathogen spread to organs where Salmonella likely resides intracellularly (Figure 3). The observation that the liver is colonized by an early intestinal population, which continues to proliferate at a steady rate throughout the infection, is very interesting and may be due to the unique nature of the organ compared to the mucosal environment. What is the biological relevance during infection? Do the authors observe the same pattern (Figures 3C and G) when normalizing the population data for the spleen and mesenteric lymph nodes (mLN)? If not, what do the authors think is driving this different distribution?

(3) Figure 6: Could the bile pathology be due to increased general bacterial translocation rather than Salmonella colonization specifically? Did the authors check for the presence of other bacteria (potentially also proliferating) in the bile? Do the authors know whether Salmonella's metabolic activity in the bile could be responsible for gallbladder pathology?

eLife Assessment

This important study uses a large dataset from both recent isolates and genomes in databases to provide an analysis of the population structure of the pathogen Salmonella gallinarum. The results regarding regional adaptation and the evolutionary trajectory of the resistome and mobilome remain incomplete, requiring additional details to fully support their claims and assess the value of these insights for future policy interventions regarding this and other pathogens. This work will interest microbiologists and researchers working on genomics, evolution, and antimicrobial resistance.

Reviewer #1 (Public review):

Summary:

The investigators in this study analyzed the dataset assembly from 540 Salmonella isolates, and those from 45 recent isolates from Zhejiang University of China. The analysis and comparison of the resistome and mobilome of these isolates identified a significantly higher rate of cross-region dissemination compared to localized propagation. This study highlights the key role of the resistome in driving the transition and evolutionary history of S. Gallinarum.

Strengths:

The isolates included in this study were from 16 countries in the past century (1920 to 2023). While the study uses S. Gallinarun as the prototype, the conclusion from this work will likely apply to other Salmonella serotypes and other pathogens.

Weaknesses:

While the isolates came from 16 countries, most strains in this study were originally from China.

Reviewer #2 (Public review):

Summary:

The authors sequence 45 new samples of S. Gallinarum, a commensal Salmonella found in chickens, which can sometimes cause disease. They combine these sequences with around 500 from public databases, determine the population structure of the pathogen, and coarse relationships of lineages with geography. The authors further investigate known anti-microbial genes found in these genomes, how they associate with each other, whether they have been horizontally transferred, and date the emergence of clades.

Strengths:

(1) It doesn't seem that much is known about this serovar, so publicly available new sequences from a high-burden region are a valuable addition to the literature.

(2) Combining these sequences with publicly available sequences is a good way to better contextualise any findings.

Weaknesses:

There are many issues with the genomic analysis that undermine the conclusions, the major ones I identified being:

(1) Recombination removal using gubbins was not presented fully anywhere. In this diversity of species, it is usually impossible to remove recombination in this way. A phylogeny with genetic scale and the gubbins results is needed. Critically, results on timing the emergence (fig2) depend on this, and cannot be trusted given the data presented.

(2) The use of BEAST was also only briefly presented, but is the basis of a major conclusion of the paper. Plot S3 (root-to-tip regression) is unconvincing as a basis of this data fitting a molecular clock model. We would need more information on this analysis, including convergence and credible intervals.

(3) Using a distance of 100 SNPs for a transmission is completely arbitrary. This would at least need to be justified in terms of the evolutionary rate and serial interval.

(4) The HGT definition is non-standard, and phylogeny (vertical inheritance) is not controlled for.<br /> The cited method:<br /> 'In this study, potentially recently transferred ARGs were defined as those with perfect identity (more than 99% nucleotide identity and 100% coverage) in distinct plasmids in distinct host bacteria using BLASTn (E-value {less than or equal to}10−5)'<br /> This clearly does not apply here, as the application of distinct hosts and plasmids cannot be used. Subsequent analysis using this method is likely invalid, and some of it (e.g. Figure 6c) is statistically very poor.

(5) Associations between lineages, resistome, mobilome, etc do not control for the effect of genetic background/phylogeny. So e.g. the claim 'the resistome also demonstrated a lineage-preferential distribution' is not well-supported.

(6) The invasiveness index is not well described, and the difference in means is not biologically convincing as although it appears significant, it is very small.

(7) 'In more detail, both the resistome and mobilome exhibited a steady decline until the 1980s, followed by a consistent increase from the 1980s to the 2010s. However, after the 2010s, a subsequent decrease was identified.'<br /> Where is the data/plot to support this? Is it a significant change? Is this due to sampling or phylogenetics?

(8) It is not clear what the burden of disease this pathogen causes in the population, or how significant it is to agricultural policy. The article claims to 'provide valuable insights for targeted policy interventions.', but no such interventions are described.

(9) The abstract mentions stepwise evolution as a main aim, but no results refer to this.

(10) The authors attribute changes in population dynamics to normalisation in China-EU relations and hen fever. However, even if the date is correct, this is not a strongly supported causal claim, as many other reasons are also possible (for example other industrial processes which may have changed during this period).

(11) No acknowledgment of potential undersampling outside of China is made, for example, 'Notably, all bvSP isolates from Asia were exclusively found in China, which can be manually divided into three distinct regions (southern, eastern, and northern).'. Perhaps we just haven't looked in other places?

(12) Many of the conclusions are highly speculative and not supported by the data.

(13) The figures are not always the best presentation of the data:<br /> a. Stacked bar plots in Figure 1 are hard to interpret, the total numbers need to be shown. Panel C conveys little information.<br /> b. Figure 4B: stacked bars are hard to read and do not show totals.<br /> c. Figure 5 has no obvious interpretation or significance.

In summary, the quality of analysis is poor and likely flawed (although there is not always enough information on methods present to confidently assess this or provide recommendations for how it might be improved). So, the stated conclusions are not supported.

Reviewer #1 (Public review):

Summary:

In the manuscript "Heat Shock Factor Regulation of Antimicrobial Peptides Expression Suggests a Conserved Defense Mechanism Induced by Febrile Temperature in Arthropods," Xiao and colleagues examine the role of the shrimp Litopenaeus vannamei HSF1 ortholog (LvHSF1) in the response to viral infection. The authors provide compelling support for their conclusions that the activation of LvHSF1 limits viral load at high temperatures. Specifically, the authors convincingly show that (i) LvHSF1 mRNA and protein are induced in response to viral infection at high temperatures, (ii) increased LvHSF1 levels can directly induce the expression of the nSWD (and directly or indirectly other antibacterial peptides, AMPs), (ii) nSWD's antimicrobial activities can limit viral load, and, (iv) LvHSF1 protects survival at high temperatures following virus infection. These data thus provide a model by which an increase in HSF1 levels limits viral load through the transcription of antimicrobial peptides and provides a rationale for the febrile response as a conserved response to viral infection.

Strengths:

The large body of careful time series experiments, tissue profiling, and validation of RNA-seq data is convincing. Several experimental methodologies are used to support the authors' conclusions that nSWD is an LvHSf1 target and increased LvHSF1 alone can explain increased levels of nSWD. Similar carefully conducted experiments also conclusively implicate nSWD protein in limiting WSSV viral loads.

Weaknesses:

Despite this compelling data regarding the protective role of HSF1 in the febrile response, what remains unexplained and complicates the authors' model is the observation that losing LvHSF1 at 'normal' temperatures of 25C is not detrimental to survival, even though viral loads increase and nSWD is likely still subject to LvHSF1 regulation. These observations suggest that WSSV infection may have other detrimental effects on the cell not reflected by viral load and that LvHSF1 may play additional roles in protecting the organism from these effects of WSSV infection, such as perhaps, perturbations to protein homeostasis. This is worth discussing, especially in light of the rather complicated roles of hormesis in protection from infection, the role of HSF1 in hormesis responses, and the findings from other groups that the authors discuss.

Reviewer #2 (Public review):

Temperature is a critical factor affecting the progression of viral diseases in vertebrates and invertebrates. In the current study, the authors investigate mechanisms by which high temperatures promote anti-viral resistance in shrimp. They show that high temperatures induce HSF1 expression, which in turn upregulates AMPs. The AMPs target viral envelope proteins and inhibit viral infection/replication. The authors confirm this process in drosophila and suggest that there may be a conserved mechanism of high-temperature mediated anti-viral response in arthropods. These findings will enhance our understanding of how high temperature improves resistance to viral infection in animals.

The conclusions of this paper are mostly well supported by data, but some aspects of data analysis need to be clarified and extended. Further investigation on how WSSV infection is affected by AMP would have strengthened the study.

Reviewer #3 (Public review):

In the manuscript titled "Heat Shock Factor Regulation of Antimicrobial Peptides Expression Suggests a Conserved Defense Mechanism Induced by Febrile Temperature in Arthropods", the authors investigate the role of heat shock factor 1 (HSF1) in regulating antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) in response to viral infections, particularly focusing on febrile temperatures. Using shrimp (Litopenaeus vannamei) and Drosophila S2 cells as models, this study shows that HSF1 induces the expression of AMPs, which in turn inhibit viral replication, offering insights into how febrile temperatures enhance immune responses. The study demonstrates that HSF1 binds to heat shock elements (HSE) in AMPs, suggesting a conserved antiviral defense mechanism in arthropods. The findings are informative for understanding innate immunity against viral infections, particularly in aquaculture. However the logical flow of the paper can be improved.

I will relate to this that instead of asking for help because of the fear of feeling dumb or questioning myself if im capable i will just disengage myself. It is also the fear that the teacher never made it comfortable enough for me to want to reach out and actually ask for help.

I appreciate this as i read this because the teacher shows her interest and care of wanting the student to be there. She shows her care and i know if i received this care i wouldn't feel bad because i know i would have her support or someone to talk to. The communication with teachers is important because you're able to gain trust and security of still wanting to show up.

This would be a reason as to why i would not want to take the class. Kids not being friendly shows the enviroment of the class where you feel out of place and makes it not worth it to be there. It would make me question and reasons like these is why kids give up on themselves. Questioning if we'd be smart enough to take the class

This would be the hardest part and being left out of wanting to try new things. Being put in this situation im pretty sure that in the back of their mind they're thinking that they're pretty sure this class is not for them or it might be to difficult seeing that the class is majority white. Personally it would bring me down as much as i would want to give it a try i'd feel insecure putting myself in that situation of actually taking the class.

When the low-income students are trying to avoid those social activities due to their constrain in budget, they lose the opportunity to social and get closer with the students who has the ability to go to these events. The boundary will be set from here and making their surroundings being different.

Back in those days, the internet seems a lot more personable and much closer knit than it is today simply because it wasn't as populated or centralized as it is today. Part of me wants to experience the vibe of those days for myself and see why people prefer this style of internet to today.

In today's society, the social media platforms we use have strong social attributes. People utilize social media to showcase themselves, share their lives, and network with others. Platforms like YouTube, as a form of social media, take a more innovative approach by delivering information through videos, offering a more dynamic and multifaceted way to convey content.

An interesting fact I came across is that the Web 2.0 used chronological feeds where posts would come up on user's feed in the order of recency whereas social media today uses algorithmic feeds which is based on the user's interests, activity and interactions on the social media.

I believe that with the rise of weblogs, it allowed individuals to be able to easily share their thoughts and experiences with a broader audience on the social media. The platform LiveJournal was able to foster and create early forms of online communities with the help of reader engagement and feedback on the platform.

It's crazy how long these social networking services have been out for and still continue to be popular today. Facebook makes it really easy to connect with other people that are far away so I think that's a big reason why people still use it.

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From my own experience, as the two city's per capita income is different, their crime rates on the neighborhood would also be influenced. This is an interesting social difference I found when looking at the income and race ratio of a city.

It is interesting to read because the comparison of Santa ana and Troy school and because of the location, it is more probable to have drop out rates. Especially because of the kind of people that go to the school, it's sad that it is compared like that. I know i would look at it different of people dropping out because they do not feel the support from staff and at home as to why they tend to give up.

I would focus this more on their physical fitness. I would compare this more to how physical appearance tends to me towards semi obesity when it comes down to low income because we tend to eat just junk food because of being on the run. It happens both ways and not being physically right or be more active. I can also relate this to sports. A lot of kids in my school would not do sports because of how expensive buying gear was. even if we thought it wasn't expensive, it is because it is money that you do not plan to spend as we live check to check.

This completely makes sense in the involvement based on the school or city you're in. I can say I see the difference with working in Orange County and the activities we give to the students or even with the supplies i know its something that my city where i grew up in would have. An example would be my coordinators bringing in animals to do a mini zoo for the kids and bringing in snakes, big tortoises, and just activities that i know in my after school we would not have opportunities provided like that from the school. Everything is different when it is more of the chools involvement for the school.

The lawlessness of the site combined with the veil of anonymity 4chan provides is what causes people to act so henously. Yet sometimes there are glimmers of humanity in the depths of depravity that is 4chan.

This is the first time that I'm hearing of such platforms and it defies the idea that social media always reinforces connectivity and is mostly beneficial in some way or the other. This also brings into question how although media similar to this creates high levels of toxicity, misinformation, manipulation and more, they still continue to exist for various reasons such as revenue earned from the platforms, the right to free speech and more which I personally find extremely unethical.

I am feeling bad when reading this, where a kid cannot have enough food while he needs it, and has to have drinks as the alternative for extra food that is provided by the family. But in a family that has limited income for food supply, it seems to be the only solution that the family can offer to their children.

From my understanding, besides school, your family is where you can learn the most outside of school. For example, Anthony's family has a comparative lower level of education, which makes him harder to earn reading abilities and understandings from his family outside of school. The gap would grow in a significant rate during this age.

Increasing amount of this stuff are now blocked. It's becoming the norm now.

Because the resource that students can receive is varied at BHS, it can greatly impact what the students would choose for their extracurriculars to be.

The "self-scheduling" system is creating a boundary between the poor students and others. As they don't have much understanding about the education system, including the procedures they might need to take if they would like to enroll in college. This is not only a boundary that is set under the school and trying to test about the student's personal ability, also a boundary that separates the information that can be received by the students.

I this this can be an example of the student missing enough counseling help with class selection and the missing guidance information the school can provide. In another words, if Chantelle can have more information about the difficulty of math, and differences of courses, she might not step herself into the wrong level of math class.

school resource is strongly related to the student's decision as they don't receive many resources from their family. For example, a school with more resources that provides the students to learn subjects outside of school would make a wider path for the students to choose their future path than those without the resource.

Even though AOL may seem outdated in comparison to the multitude of social media platforms of the modern day, I noticed that we still use quite a few features from the chat system in today's softwares. For example, the online offline feature or profile quotes are a "new" feature on Instagram visible to your followers.

The Bulletin Board System (BBS) is still a popular way to transmit information today. Unlike the monotonous bulletin boards of the past, when we visit any modern popular website, we often find such message boards present.

I believe that AIM was an extremely pivotal in shaping the way that we interact online as it was able to introduce the way that we could use real time-digital communication and status updates to talk to other people. After reflecting on the influence that AIM had on digital communication, I believe it really helped set the foundation for many of the features that social media apps use today.

I didn't think that emails were created around the 60's and 70's this actually surprises me. They've been around for a long time now I wonder if people received emails instantly back then and if not how long would it take for them to get sent? It only us a couple seconds to receive an email.

it is interesting that some UI designers will intentionally create friction to leverage the difficulty of pressing smaller buttons. Though most designers would like to create a frictionless feeling, I think a little bit of friction may create more interaction with the viewers; especially if the website is selling products, it might be helpful to force users to click on multiple buttons to get them exposed to more goods before they achieve their desired goal

It's very interesting to think about the idea of friction as an intentional choice, which seems counterintuitive. However, on further thought it seems like MORE friction should be added to social media. Services like Meta's Reels and TikTok have very low friction levels (even ads can be swiftly swiped past) which cause many people--including me--to get sucked into an endless scroll for dopamine.

I think divergent thinking is better than convergent thinking in most aspects. Devising multiple solutions to a problem is more beneficial for problem solving skills than simply arriving at one answer.

Fact-checking is a very precise, meticulous process to ensure the public receives accurate information.

Fact checking presidential statements is essential because if the president can freely lie and make up facts/statistics, it will severely mislead a large proportion of the country.

Ha! I love this phrase. It captures the tension between law as a precise discipline and law as an interpretive art.

This line shows how complex the legal system is. The widow’s frustration highlights how the law appears as being simple and clear-cut, but in reality, cases are rarely exactly the same, and interpreting the law can be complicated and uncertain.

This relates to the research methods we have been learning in class. Formulating a plan to find relevant sources to the issue we are researching is vital in cutting down time and reducing reading sources that do not apply to the issue at hand. Creating a viable plan before beginning research is a vital task to ensure logical research procedures.

As I learn research skills and the methods required to produce timely and efficient material it is reassuring to know there is no one true method. Although finding my method that produces effective results will not be easy I can understand it will come from time and repetition. Although the process of developing my technique has been extremely frustrating and confusing as I navigate I understand the importance that legal research and writing has in practice.

Thinking of encyclopedias, or C.J.S., as one of the most current resouces for information seems contrary to what one would assume. Having an accessible and quick way to learn about a research topic is a great short cut to noting which cases define the common law for the topic, and where to continue your research. This resource is especially great when a topic is new and you have a short timeframe to gather your necessary research.

To the end of the sentence on the next page:

The first portion of this quote highlights the idea of legal research involving gathering and analyzing statutes, case law, and precedents and crafting the actual legal documents. It also emphasizes that these two things require a much deeper level of creativity and personal interpretation than often thought of. Creating these legal documents requires critical thinking, persuasive techniques, and a variety of stylistic choices that reflect the author's (attorney's) voice and perspective. This quote highlights the duality of the legal profession: the reliance on empirical data and well-established laws, and the art that is the actual profession itself - thriving on individual expression and interpretation; it makes the practice rigorous and dynamic.

Here, we see some of the frustration that the public has with our legal system. People who aren't trained attorneys often don't understand the "whys" of the law: Why is it so hard to find a similar case? Why did a judge rule in a way that seems to contradict common sense? Why is this city code so hard to read? I think a lawyer who works with everyday people (i.e. a local defense attorney or a lawyer who writes wills for your average Joe) must empathize with these frustrations and be patient if they want to be effective.

This provides insight on the intricate process of researching legal frameworks that provide outlines for our legal system - like the Restatement of the Law and Uniform Laws. These are designed to clarify legal principles, but not to enforce the law unless the courts adopt them. A legal researcher's task is not just about reading these difficult texts but also about actually understanding them and being able to apply them where necessary. This particular part of the practice reflects a larger truth which is that the practical application of the law often differs from the theory of the law. Legal researchers cannot only rely on the theory of law, but also have to engage in the judicial evolution of legal doctrines. The legal doctrines provided by sources like the restatements and UCC must be viewed by themselves and also through their application to cases in order to truly understand how they influence the law.

This underscores the way one needs to blend structure and individuality in any and all legal research. An experienced researcher might develop their own "pattern of approach" over time, but it was likely to be shaped by how your professors taught you and how their professors taught them. The overall method is likely to be the same others', even if there are situations - such as unique legal questions - where one might take a specific route towards research. Like most research processes - across the board - there's a bit of standardization of the legal one. Even if we all have differences in what works best for us, we all have to make sure we're competent, thorough, and efficient. Its the mix of the personal and the structured that makes legal research so creative while also being methodical.

This is something that I hope I can achieve. Despite spending almost six weeks in law school, I am unaware if anything has "clicked" for me. However, I am riding on the wave that it will eventually click, that law school and legal studied will eventually get better. I want to get to a point where I have a "pattern of approach" for legal research and reading legal documents. I am certain though that I am more equipped now that I was six weeks ago. But, I still have a long way to do.

This phrase really struck me. Up to this point, the article seems to be about what is expected of research and the idea that every person has a different approach. I think it can be really easy to assume that everyone else is doing things better, even if they never say what it is they're doing, and sometimes it can be difficult to start a conversation that needs to be had when you think you aren't good enough to start it. But if important conversations are going to happen, someone has to start them.

I agree, everyone will find their own way of researching, and it might be altered by the issue. That said, this article gives a nice guide for those new to legal research, and I’m sure if followed will produce worthwhile results.

Obviously there is no method to guarantee our perfect case will be found, yet this seems so frustrating. You can go through the whole research process, doing each step as well as it can be done, and still not end up finding what you're looking for. Sometimes the "case just like mine" doesn't exist which is quite the bitter conclusion to reach after a lengthy research process.

Differences in situations like the author describes here have been frustrating for me outside of research in law school. Considering that I am still new to this, I will get to a point where I feel comfortable with an idea that I have been learning and then a slight change will warrant a completely different approach that I am not familiar with and I have to start all over again. I feel like the author's last sentence of this paragraph is really more of a euphemistic way to say that everyone will have their own mental scars from dealing with their particular "special situations."

This idea of legal research and practice being an art more than a science is intriguing to me. It seems to me that a great deal of what we have learned so far in LRW or our other classes has been a mixture of both. I find that my mind feels comfortable with procedures and rules that are in theory rigid and clear, but then the application to a fact pattern or a slight shift in interpreting the exact words, "make[s] all the difference in the world as regards the results..."

This is such an interesting way to play strategy in law, one that I would never think of to use. I wonder if why I am surprised by this approach is my technological outlook on research. Most of the research I have done throughout my life has been via internet, primary source or secondary. Because of this, I imagine when I am doing research that we have all of the same access to resources. The idea of hiding a law book has its own implications because of the innate nature of law resources as a whole. As discussed in my library tour with Professor Creed, law firms are limited on research resources because of the cost of these materials. This strategy is especially perfect for the law industry as the materials are as limited as mentioned.

Is there such a thing as being too specific? I feel like the problems with the law and the lack of understanding derive from getting so granular that the wording begins to lose focus. Certain topics require specificity, but I can't quite agree with language that is so unreachable. Why not write like Hemingway?

This argument is very similar to the phrase, "we're all immigrants from somewhere". Even though the evidence is literally staring at them in the face, people are stubborn. They don't care if the Kumeyaay are the rightful descendants, UCSD and by extension people in La Jolla, want what they want and they'll say whatever so that they get it.

I agree with this because it's obvious that UCSD has little to no respect for the Kumeyaay, I mean they didn't even consult them when they were starting on the project in the first place. If they had it their way, they would gladly tear down the house without telling the tribe.

It's really ironic that they were so concerned about protecting something that they see to have cultural significance when they could care less about the importance the land has to the Kumeyaay. It just goes to show that it doesn't matter how many laws are passed to protect Native culture, history, and peoples. Native Americans will aways be treated as an after thought.

!!!

it is crazy to me that they even had to THINK about whether or not to return the skeletons to the Kumeyaay people, i feel like even thinking about keeping them is selfish

Using social media nowadays becoming the cautious behavior since so many spam bots are hiding behind the internet potentially. That is also the drawbacks of identity verified social medias. We need to stay cautious and clear.A

im sure this is what we all aim to do :)

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"only prerequisite is a DESIRE to continue learning at the post-secondary level"

giving them the option just like everyone in our community!

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standing up for what is right, i like to see it!

it's honestly viewed as a "next chapter" of everyone's lives when talking in terms of post secondary. i feel like thinking you don't even have this opportunity because of a developmental or intellectual disability, feels very isolating and lonely? it's like you are missing it while everyone gets to experience without you

planning for post secondary helps students find their identities and contribute to their communities. the education system aims to help students develop the skills they need in order to succeed and engage in society!

There are other types of regularization that work in practice (for example, L1, which is not even differentiable). Does this mean that L2 regularization is the best ?

2 How are the diets of wolves different from bears? How are cougars different from wolves in terms of what they eat and how they hunt? How does this knowledge inform about threats to livestock?

According to the graph in figure 3 of the paper, wolves primarily cause damage to agriculture through eating livestock while grizzly bears split between livestock eating and attractant and Black Bears primarily being attractant. Cougars and wolves both primarily cause damage through eating livestock, but wolves hunt in packs where cougars hunt alone, so wolves tend to do more costly eating of livestock all at once. Additionally cougars also tend to eat smaller animals where a wolf pack or pair will eat larger animals. This knowledge shows us that although both wolves and cougars primarily cause damage through eating livestock, and the differences in diet and choice of prey can help farmers better adapt their defenses and mitigation strategies based on the animal threat they face most often.

While it's reasonable to claim that a decentralized media system results in the proliferation of conspiracy theories, I think it's worth noting that conspiratorial press is also very common within centralized media systems. News networks and daytime TV alike both have a tendency to report shocking and dubiously truthful (if not outright false and dangerous) news, often manufacturing outrage just the same.

lots of opportunities and offers to make sure they can have a say and variety in what field individuals with disabilities want to go though

putting an effort to make sure they can excel during the process of finding work

Usually the radio button will have identification text like the example provided.

How is the moral obviousness of how wrong this is not clear? They refuse to censure (disapprove), echoing that nothing has changed (Piexoto)

Offred's narrative makes connections to Chaucer, the first poet to publish in english. Most connection to the Canterbury tales which talks about pilgrims in a story-telling competition.

So are handmaids on a pilgrimage, and it is a tale and not a biography ?? Is offred a pilgrim looking for her religiousness?

Sexist element in saying she was looking for her lost faith and she was telling a fib, a lie, a myth.

The orphanage throughout the play is a means for people's benefits. Mrs.Alving uses it to cover the truth and for Mr.Alving and Oswald's social reputation and other people use it to extract profit

When the connection between Oswald and Regine is revealed, Oswald is deeply heart-broken, as opposed to Regine, who shows a cold attitude. The fact that she wishes to 'take advantage of her youth' shows that she was only interested in Oswald for her material gain [her trip to Paris], and that she has never truly loved him.

Despite the hatred that Regine has against his father, she is quite similar to his father in this sense - taking advantage of love for material gain and social success

Mrs.Alving's refusal of the reality - Oswald is unconsciously inheriting a lot of aspects of his father, even those that she wanted him to avoid, the primary cause for her to send him to another city and cutting the bonds between their relationship

The Sun reflects Oswald's pursuit for clarity of his past, family, and truth. Throughout the novel, darkness manifested in the house and the places he has been staying, which contributed to his illness [he was not allowed to know about his father, which led him to build an ideal image of him on his own imagination. And when this image is broken, he faces struggles and mental disorders]

"Oh, how – how dark it is here!" "It is dark outside apart from a faint glow to the left in the background."

This once again shows his manipulative endeavor. + how he repeats the word 'father' and 'child' "What the hell's this? Going against your own father, are you, girl?" He brings up familial and bloodline connection before revealing is true intention, as a means for Engstrand to make Regine feel bad for him. His primary interest lies in how she can be used as 'womenfolk round the house, for a bit of fun in the evenings, singing and dancing'

Engstrand's treatment of Regine throughout the play can be interpreted as both exploitative and manipulative. The relationship between the two figures lack of connection and concern for each others' well being, because both of them are focused on their desires and ambitions for material success. This quote specifically highlights Regine's awareness of Engstrand's manipulative endeavor, as well as her refusal to be used for his gain

I think that this sentence is really showing the narrator and the reader the personality of someone struggling, showing perhaps a potential insight into how Sonny may have acted or looked before his death. I also thought that this line was heartbreaking for the reader because you can infer that this person has an extremely low view of themselves, perhaps contributing to how they live.

I thought that this line was specifically heart wrenching within the story because I think that it displays the sad reality of loving someone with an addiction and not being able to ever fully understand, because there is no logic or sense to it. I thought that it was enforcing the idea that an outsider looking in will never be able to understand someone's own personal struggle.

Before I read this I didn't know what story he was referring to and now I understand.

This is another line that really goes into how the character feels about Harlem and the things they went through saying that when they came back to Harlem, even though he was older everything was pretty much the same. Sometimes we go through things in our past that if we go back to the original place, it can bring feelings of sorrow rather than just nostalgia which is an important message in this story.

This passage was by far my favorite. I love how Baldwin is saying that even though he may be feeling sad or have faced may things in life, he can play beautiful music. His life and him breathing is so important as a musician because he can use those feelings or emotions to his advantage to help spread to message to anyone who hears it and as a musician, he would have the control to make it do what he wanted it to.

This really stuck out to me. In a way I thought it was powerful because he feels he is changing in his character or personality which results from the trauma he has faced and the sadness that the character feels.

I wonder why they never cared about what was going on in Sonny's friend's life, what he had been through, if anything. And why did they not question the boy on why he was always waiting in the courtyard?

I was pretty confused when I was reading this sentence. I knew that something happened to Sonny but they were never really clear on what. But then they said he got hung so I took it in the context of he was dead, but as the story went on that was obviously not the case so now I think that they meant more so he got hung up on things he shouldn't have been.

I really liked this sentence because it gave the story the ending that it needed, this sentence showed that Sonny was okay; that he had turned over a new leaf and that he was not going back to the person he was before.

*Whats significant about this comment to me, is the authors use of light and darkness. He has an unique take on it, and this is especially noticeable when he makes this statement, about when the light comes on the kid is filled with dark. Its like Bane from Batman who has a well known statement about how he was born in the darkness, and the difference of this versus somebody like batman who adopted it. This child and the environment had turned so dark that light represented having to experience life going on. This is a beautiful way of explaining how life experiences aren`t always so light and dark, and the different ways light can be perceived to those born in the dark. *

A lot of times siblings say more informal things to each other so it was nice to see the author convey that here and show what the relationship between two siblings is like.

I think that all throughout the story he's trying to get into Sonny's world. At first he doesn't want to be in his world, here he is trying to get in.

I think a lot of times students assume that teachers don't want to be there when they themselves don't like school much so I wonder if this is what the author was trying to convey?

The use of repetition here, I think, is a really good way to start the passage because it sets the reader up for how the main character is as a person.

I think "the low ceiling of their actual possibilities" is a line that very strongly resonates throughout the entire story. Both brothers tried to break that ceiling.

I like this line because it demonstrates how some people don't take into consideration how serious a situation can get.

Even though their might be a possibility that they won't get much information, I don't see why they don't also consult the Kumeyaay tribe as well. If they're not sure, just like the tribes who were consulted to see the footprints in White Sands National Park, they'd probably be notified and possibly go see it.

This was really surprising to read because even though UCSD isn't really known for their anthropology or history department, I thought that they'd at least do the bare minimum to protecting these items. However, the fact they barely did anything to properly preserve them, shows that not even well reputed federal institutions can be entirely trusted to help preserve Native history.

missed the identification of metal and never talked about the percent of error. also forgot a period.

Has no labels of the Y&X axis.

To reduce funding for EPA's extramural research as well as for NGOs addressing environmental justice, the author proposes an initial halt and "review" of all bigger ongoing grants. Ironically, the author's solution to allegedly "radical" environmental research "driven by ideology" is to put a political appointee in charge of EPA research enterprises. Is that person really going to enable grant distribution to "those who are in most need and towards projects that will tangibly improve the environment"? Only if judgements about need and tangibility reflect demonstrably scientific realities more so that conservative ideological blinders that so often skew and slant the proposals in this chapter.

过的粉丝放过的是非观说的吧

The vibe I got out of this line is the creepy motif of a doppelgänger and the unsettling psychological implications of the “other” that haunts the speaker. Both Eliot’s speaker here and the main character of Dracula, Jonathan Harker, confront spectral presences that embody their deepest fears and anxieties, suggesting that this “third” figure represents more than just a physical entity. It’s a shadow self, a manifestation of repressed desires, fears, and the destabilization of identity.

In Dracula, Dracula the character functions not only as a literal antagonist but also as a projection of the unconscious fears and desires of Harker. When he is trapped in Dracula’s castle, he begins to experience a split in his sense of self, feeling his identity destabilize under the influence of the Count. He states, “I am beginning to feel this nocturnal existence tell on me. It is destroying my nerve. I start at my own shadow, and am full of all sorts of horrible imaginings” (Stoker). This vampiric presence of Dracula is both external and internal—an embodiment of everything Harker represses within himself.

Similarly, in TWL, the “third” walking beside the speaker is neither fully acknowledged nor understood. The ambiguity of the figure’s identity—“I do not know whether a man or a woman”—reflects the same psychological dissonance present in Harker’s experiences with Dracula. The third figure, like Dracula, is elusive, undefined, and haunting, representing a part of the self that remains unrecognized yet constantly lurks at the edge of consciousness.

Why is this? Shouldn't Britain still be the worlds leading economy. With the amount of colonies Britain has, why is it that they have lagged down? Can countries that haven't fully developed have such a dramatic economic gain as this if they industrialize and prioritize it? L

Because history is something we are supposed to learn from and not repeat it is hard to see the deployment and a result and cycle of police brutality occurring throughout different time periods. Especially over human rights protests.

I learned about the “double-blind” clinical trial method in statistics, which is performed in such a way that neither the performer nor the subject knows what treatment they're being given, what drug they're being given, and so on, and so on, and so on, and so on, and so on, and so on, and so on, and so on, and so on, and so on, and so on, and so on, and so on, and so on, and so on, and so on, and so on, and so on.

“2 trillion” sounds like a horrible number, and it's in U.S. dollars, so I can't imagine how big a number it is. In sighing at the number of spending so big at the same time I can understand, my family is also open a chain of drugstores, although not every day business is very good, but in our family drugstore there are too many old customers, they are sick or small illnesses have to go to see a doctor to buy a drug, who did not have a few boxes of medicine stored at home this year!

The importance of forecasting with its relevance to the renewable energy cause is explained

A breakdown of the big picture solution

This is the main point of this paper

It would be useful to explain the meaning of " -1" in the formula.

O Mustafa Kabha εργαζεται σε Ισραηλινο πανεπιστημιο:

Mustafa Kabha is full Professor in the Department of History, Philosophy and Judaic Studies and the Head of the Middle Eastern studies at the Open University of Israel.

Το μεμαλοποιει, στη λιστα με τις σφαγες στη Wikipedia δεν βρισκω πολλες τετοιες.

Παλι εδω η θεωρια πως οι Αραβες ειναι γενετικα ολοι τους απογονοι του Μωαμεθ, και οχι οτι ηταν μια πολιτιστικη/θρησκευτικη επεκταση. Με τη 2η ερνηνεια, ο ορος "χριστιανος αραβας" δεν βγαζει παντα νοημα:

The concept of an Arab Christian identity remains contentious, with some Arabic-speaking Christian groups in the Middle East, such as Assyrians, Armenians, Greeks and others, rejecting an Arab identity. Individuals from Egypt's Coptic Christian community and Lebanon's Maronite community sometimes assume a non-Arab identity.

Εδω μαλλον εννοει τους Μαρωνιτες. Σιγουρα αυτοι συνομωτισαν εναντια στους Παλαιστινιους προσφυγες το '80.

want more information regarding the government to be public

This is an example of mal-information. This is an example because it is someone posting a leak on the internet. They posted this knowing that it would get the company in trouble and that it was also harmful to the company. This could make many frequent Disney guests mad at this information that is made up and quite honestly illegal. They posted this leak on many different social media platforms. One would know that this is mal-information because it is from an unreliable source that is not confirmed from Disney themselves. This leak is not considered something that Disney stands for with their family friendly environment and would cause lots of negative controversy around the Disney world and fanbase.

The fixed effects method allows us

This is so good to learn about it, history have a way to repeat itself, this event reminds me about what just happen in 2020 which the crazy speculation with the crypto monodies. a lot of people were even taking a loans to invest in crypto believing they could get rich easy and lost a lot of money, Good reflection.

Review coordinated by Life Science Editors Foundation

Reviewed by: Dr. Angela Andersen, Life Science Editors Foundation & Life Science Editors. *Assisted substantially by NotebookLM.

Potential Conflicts of Interest: Angela thinks Olivia Rissland is everything a scientist should be.

What is an N-degron? N-degrons are short amino acid sequences located at the N-terminus of a protein that signal for the protein's degradation. This process is an essential part of protein quality control and regulation within cells. N-degrons are recognized by specific E3 ubiquitin ligases, also known as N-recognins, which help target the protein for degradation by the ubiquitin-proteasome system.

How was this new Arg/N-degron pathway discovered? The authors were initially studying how N-terminal sequences affect gene expression using a reporter gene assay. They found that a specific tripeptide motif (KIH) inserted at the N-terminus of a reporter protein led to a dramatic decrease in protein expression. Further investigation revealed that this decrease was due to rapid protein degradation, indicating the presence of a novel N-degron.

What are the key features of this new N-degron pathway? This newly discovered N-degron pathway targets proteins with a lysine (K) or arginine (R) residue at the third position (position 3) from the N-terminus. Importantly, this pathway requires: * • Methionine Removal: The initiator methionine (M) at position 1 must be removed by the enzyme methionine aminopeptidase 2 (MetAP2) for the degron to be active. * • UBR4 Recognition: The E3 ligase UBR4, but not UBR1 or UBR2, recognizes this specific degron and initiates the degradation process.

Why is the identity of the second amino acid important? The second amino acid plays a crucial role in determining whether MetAP2 can cleave the initiator methionine. This study found that the degron is only active when the second amino acid is threonine (T) or valine (V). These amino acids allow MetAP2 to remove the methionine, exposing the lysine or arginine at position 3 for recognition by UBR4. In contrast, if the second amino acid is alanine (A) or serine (S), MetAP1 removes the methionine. The researchers hypothesize that these N-termini are then acetylated, preventing UBR4 recognition.

Is there evidence that this pathway affects endogenous proteins? Yes, analysis of previously published data and additional experiments by the researchers suggest that this MetAP2-UBR4 pathway is not limited to artificial reporter systems. They found that endogenous proteins with MTK or MVK N-termini were less stable than those with other amino acids at position.

Does UBR4 work alone in this pathway? UBR4 appears to function as part of a complex with the protein KCMF1 to degrade proteins containing this new degron. Experiments showed that disrupting the UBR4-KCMF1 complex stabilized the degradation of reporter proteins containing the KIH degron.

What is the broader significance of this discovery? The identification of this new Arg/N-degron pathway expands our understanding of the N-end rule, a fundamental mechanism for protein degradation in cells. It highlights the complexity of this system and reveals how the interplay between different enzymes like MetAP2 and E3 ligases like UBR4 can fine-tune protein stability. Additionally, it suggests that there may be other undiscovered N-degron pathways that remain to be characterized.

What questions still need to be answered about this new pathway? This study raises several new questions, including: * • Substrate Specificity: What are the precise rules governing UBR4 recognition of position 3 lysine and arginine degrons? Do other amino acids in the protein sequence affect degron recognition? * • Physiological Roles: What are the specific cellular processes and pathways regulated by this MetAP2-UBR4 N-degron pathway? * • Evolutionary Conservation: Is this pathway conserved in other organisms, or is it unique to mammals? * • Therapeutic Potential: Could this pathway be targeted for therapeutic purposes? For example, could stabilizing proteins involved in disease by manipulating this pathway be beneficial?

What was not known: * • Whether a lysine or arginine residue at position 3 of a protein could act as an N-degron. * • Whether MetAP2 could play a role in initiating N-degron-mediated degradation.

What this preprint reveals: * • A new family of N-degrons: The study identified a new class of N-degrons characterized by a lysine or arginine residue at position 3, following a methionine at position 1 and a MetAP2-cleavable residue (threonine or valine) at position * • MetAP2-dependent initiation of the Arg/N-degron pathway: The study found that MetAP2-mediated removal of the initiator methionine is essential for the recognition and degradation of these position 3 lysine/arginine degrons. This is the first demonstration of MetAP2's involvement in this pathway * • UBR4 as the primary E3 ligase: UBR4, rather than UBR1 or UBR2, was identified as the primary E3 ligase responsible for recognizing and targeting proteins with the newly identified position 3 degrons for degradation. * • Role of downstream residues: The study showed that amino acid residues downstream of the position 3 lysine/arginine can influence both methionine cleavage by MetAP2 and recognition by UBR4, highlighting the complexity of the N-degron pathway. * • Endogenous protein regulation: The study provided evidence suggesting that this MetAP2-dependent, UBR4-mediated Arg/N-degron pathway regulates the stability of endogenous proteins, highlighting its broader biological significance.

Ang's take- somewhat specialized and 'ectopic' but important, thorough, and unambiguous. Satisfying. Very likely to be physiologically relevant even though most of the assays were done with reporters. Regardless, showing that this rule 'is' true is useful for technological applications.

There is so much racism, inequality, and atrocities that have happened in Orange County's past, yet there is little conversation about it now to recognize it. It is privilege to be able to commit all of these acts, and then forget them, yet the people who they've affected will forever remember and be affected by their actions. It also shows that there's a lot of history to unpack that many of us are probably unaware about.

The geographic location in which an individual resides plays a significant role in determining their ability to advance socioeconomically. This influence comes various factors such as the quality of educational institutions, the availability of diverse job opportunities, the strength of social networks, and the extent of community infrastructure. These elements can vary widely from one area to another, which leads to disparities in economic mobility. For instance, even within California, the economic opportunities and social dynamics in Los Angeles differ markedly from those in neighboring regions such as Orange County. or Irvine.

According to a Google search of the word "Mountebanks," a mountebank is "a person who deceives others, especially in order to trick them out of their money; a charlatan." However, Google also provides a "historical" definition, which reads: "a person who sold patent medicines in public places." In this sentence, Michael Maier appears to be calling on the knowledge of jugglers and mountebanks in order to argue that just as one can expel worms out of children by using other worms, one can kill a dragon through the power of its brother and sister. However, I wonder why Maier would call on a source that is connoted as inherently being "a charlatan." Or was that reputation to arise during a later period, and at this point they were not considered charlatans and were simply vendors of patent medicines? I'm also curious about who these jugglers were. Did early modern Europe have a juggler profession? How were they funded, if so? Or is the meaning less literal?

I looked up this word because I did not know it and found that it is defined as "the ‘sperm’ (sometimes ‘menstruum’) of the world, and ‘our Mercury’ (philosophical mercury as opposed to common mercury)." (Here is the link to the source where I found that definition.) This definition reminded me of how "The generation of the philosophers’ stone might be framed in terms of human or animal reproduction" (source). I wonder what might be the reasoning behind calling to mind human reproduction when discussing alchemy. One guess I have is that human reproduction is a natural process, so if making the philosopher's stone is a process similar to that, it can't be diabolical because it is as natural as giving birth. However, that is just a guess of mine.

This is a fun fact to know as by the name you would think other wise

It’s interesting to see how they actually worked hand in hand in some ways.

They had many ways to learn with many books available to them

A lot of the important things flourished in Spain and that’s intriguing.

it is interesting that they work together for these textiles because usually we see men and women have vastly different jobs back in history.

In our discussion section, we have been talking a lot about how knowledge production during the early modern period was, at times, a means toward gatekeeping and, in doing so, maintained hierarchies of class and gender, for example. Similarly, in Magus, the credibility of a magus often depended on their ability to neatly frame themselves as one of those magi who skillfully drew upon elements that already existed in nature rather than a magus who conspired with the devil to produce effects. I feel that Michael Maier is doing something similar here, as he establishes his credibility by setting himself apart from those "strangers to all good learning and intention."

It seems cannons where a big use in war in the older times of wars.

It’s interesting to see how wars was in the older times compared to now.