I find this very weird. To have access to private aircraft at the time is unheard of unless you were part of the very top of the economic classes. On top of that they had turpentine fire bombs? Not only did this have to planned in advance, people would have to spend tons and tons of money just for the set up to this plan, so to me it feels like either super rich people or tons of people grouped money together just for this.

Missing here is how, for instance in the Clean Air or Water Act, precisely this "vagueness" enables Congression legislation to articulate broad protections for American lives and livelihoods, for instance, against the threat of pollution. Also missing here is the necessary reliance of environmental and other agencies on scientific expertise, to determine the reality and certainty of health and environmental dangers. That is an expertise that most Congresspeople and judges can, at best, only pretend to have. If the last Trump Administration is any indication, the silence or constraining messages about science in conservative plans for the administrative state translate into aggressive efforts to shred federal scientfic workforces and funds when these conservatives do come to power. https://envirodatagov.org/embattled-landscape-series-part-2b-the-declining-capacity-of-federal-environmental-science/

What example does the author have of a country with a "high degree of economic freedom"? The author was quite specific about the failures of command economies. It is suggestive that he cannot provide a single example of an economy that works. The author might be interested to learn that Sweden is in fact one of the countries with the fewest regulations on economic activity, rating #9 among all nations according to the Heritage Foundation itself. https://www.heritage.org/index/pages/country-pages/sweden At the same time, according to the International Monetary Fund, "the 'Swedish model'—is marked by the use of big, centralized institutions and large-scale transfers, commonly provided on a universal basis (rather than being income related) with a view to reducing inequality, alleviating poverty, and insuring against social risks." https://www.elibrary.imf.org/display/book/9781589061583/ch001.xml

Abundant historical and economic literature now attributes the growth of America's middle class over the middle of the 20th century to the New Deal and other liberal policy-making that favored that growth.  Many scholars have also amassed abundant evidence connecting the middle-class struggles and pooling of wealth at the top since the 1970s to the  neoliberal, wealth-favoring policies that Heritage and other conservatives quie succesfully advocated for. https://scalar.usc.edu/works/growing-apart-a-political-history-of-american-inequality/index

This sentence establishes a demonstrably false equivalence between socialism and four other very different visions for government. It also insinuates ("whatever name it chooses") there is no meaningful difference between any of these "-isms", that socialists, for instance, might just as well refer to themselves as Communists, or Marxists, or progressives, or Fascists. This claim is not only false, it suggest a deep intellectual unseriousness, an unwillingness even to consider any of these political programs as historical realities. As historians know, the lumping together of many enemies into a monoliithic opponent is nothing new, reviving conservative narratives of subversion like that during Second Red Scare after World War II, highlighted in the anti-Constitutional activities of the House UnAmerican Affairs Committee.

The celebration of market freedom is still here, but now tucked within visions of all Americans achieving "happiness" by adhering to social and moral norms as well as "religious devotion and spirituality." Another instance in this document of "reshaping the past to change the present." http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.3998/mpub.11760539.7.

The document accuses environmentalism of "abandoning confidence in human resiliency and creativity." To the contrary, much actually existing environmentalism hopes for and demands human ingenuity, especially to craft and implement those manifold new solutions - not just governmenal but economic, technological and cultural - that together can mount an adequate, just, and empathic reponse to the ongoing and future realities of climate change.

Project 2025, in its insistence on not seeing climate change but instead simply preserving a fossil-fuel-only global economy, remains mired in the past. It fails to see recognize what's under its authors' noses, the current economic trends and positive shifts in energy productivity. For impacts of the shifts to clean energy, see https://www.the-big-green-machine.com/

Project 2025 relies here on an inconsistent and oddly contradictory argument. They accuse "the left" of "cheap grace," which they define as "publicly promoting one's own virtue without risking any personal inconvenience." Yet the "environmental extremism" being castigated here sounds like quite the opposite: involving a radical willingness to sacrifice one's own and others' "personal conveniences," even to the point of "standing human affairs on their head."

By contrast, there's also a favorable invocation here of "stewardwardship and conservation" as less extreme, presumably because not concerned about curbing "the fuels that run almost all." In later chapters, however, notably that on the Department of Interior, the ethics of "stewardship and conservation" are hard to find.

That this lead Project 2025 defines environmentali extremism sm as "anti-human" seems curiously consonant with asides depicting "the left" as not actually human, mere "beasts." Such framings leave little room or sympathy for how so many environmental policies actually center concern for all life on the planet, including human life. Conservative causes like the anti-vaccine movement and restricting women's health options, though, are fundamentally detrimental to human life.

No evidence is given for this statement, but environmentalists have long recognized that poor and communities of color suffer disproportionately from the burdens of pollution and environmental crises. https://exhibits.lib.unc.edu/exhibits/show/we-birthed/item/7444 https://nyupress.org/9781479861781/toxic-communities/ The very construction of white as "clean" and people of color as "dirty" has its roots in racism and constructions of types of work and living. https://nyupress.org/9781479826940/clean-and-white/

In addition, civil rights activists have for over a century dedicated their focus to improving environmental conditions. Black women worked to educate neighborhoods about germs and the dangers of flies and to clean up neighborhoods during the Progressive Era. In the 1968, black workers in Memphis, Tennessee organized a strike against poor working conditions for sanitation workers. In the late 1970s and early 1980s, a neighborhood in Houston, Texas organized against a pending sanitary landfill. Not long after, citizens in Warren County, North Carolina mobilized against construction of a landfill. https://upittpress.org/books/9780822958994/ https://www.rutgersuniversitypress.org/transforming-environmentalism/9780813546780/

Under Ronald Reagan, the GAO conducted a nationwide study which confirmed activists' complaints. The report, https://www.gao.gov/products/rced-83-168, found that of four landfills that accepted hazardous waste, 3 of them were located in majority African American communities. All four communities had at least a 26% poverty rate.

Attempts to alleviate environmental injustice have been taken under both Republican and Democratic administrations in the past. In 1990 under George H.W. Bush, the EPA created the Environmental Equity Workgroup, which he elevated to the Office of Environmental Equity. Under William Clinton, the office name was changed to the Office of Environmental Justice in 1994 and he also directed all federal agencies to work toward policies to alleviate the issue through executive order. https://www.archives.gov/files/federal-register/executive-orders/pdf/12898.pdf<br /> More recently, under Barack Obama, the EPA worked to make data about environmental justice more transparent through EJSCREEN.

This comment distorts Bonhoeffer's views and lacks context. Bonhoeffer formulated the notion of "cheap grace" in his 1937 The Cost of Disciplineship in Nazi Germany, in important part to criticize the complacency of German Christians who attempted to legitimizethe Nazi state. He opposed "cheap grace" to its "costly" counterpart, involving not just statements of Christian belief but actions in accordance with those beliefs. Elsewhere, Bonhoeffer also offered an acutely moral analysis of how Nazism worked that better suggests how his concepts might be applied today: "petty tyrants... destroy a nation at its core…They slip through your fingers when you want to grab them, for they are smooth and cowardly. They are like a contagious disease. When such a tyrant sucks the vital strength from his victim he simultaneously infects him with his spirit; and as soon as this tyrant's victim gets hold of the least bit of power himself, he takes revenge for what has happened to him. But this revenge--this is the horror—is not directed against the guilty, but against the innocent, defenseless victims." https://www.jstor.org/stable/23917808

This comment points out one of the foundational ironies of the document. Out of the list of 36 authors and editors for Project 2025, 4 have Ph.Ds (2 from Harvard); 1 has a medical degree; 20 have law degrees; and 13 masters degrees. The list of universities where they've been educated reads like a who's who of the world's most elite institutions - Oxford, the Sorbonne, MIT, Harvard, Yale, University of Virginia, George Washington, Columbia. They represent a highly educated, elite group. Yet here, Project 2025's lead author claims that people educated at such institutions lack the knowledge necessary for good governance.

In addition, the authors of Project 2025 comment on matters where they clearly lack expertise. The vast majority are either lawyers, economists, political scientists, or policy analysts. None are scientists, environmental or otherwise, unless you count Benjamin Carson, a medical doctor. The only one with an advanced degree in history is Dustin J. Carmack, who received a masters degrees from Tel Aviv University.

These comments signal a historically significant departure in the conservative agenda vis-a-vis corporations . In the neoconservative agenda from the 1970s-early 2010s, they and allied "hedge fund managers" were portrayed as iconic exemplars of market freedom, with former hedge fund manger Mitt Romney receiving the Republican nomination for president in 2012. Now the alleged corporate embrace of a "woke agenda" and dependence on "foreign investors" provide grounds for turning on them and "their sense of superiority." Instead, this new "populist" version of conservativism itself borrows from the rhetoric of the labor movement, seeking to align its cause with "workers who shower after work instead of before."

These conservatives' turn against the modern corporate world also proceeds along another front. Rather than seeing corporations as valid actors in their own right, the authors now present "woke" companies as duped or manipulated in some way by a shadowy "Left" to adopt "illegitimate" values. According to this line of critique, those running corporations lost the ability to make legitimate decisions.

The Heritage Foundation's narrative of history in this document sets up Reagan's policies and beliefs against Wilson's, ignoring the pivotal importance of Franklin Roosevelt as a standard-bearer for Democrats. Presumably, they chose Wilson to represent his internationalism, although he failed in his efforts to establish the League of Nations after World War I. Their choice also ignores Roosevelt's establishment of the New Deal order, as well as the international institution-building after World War II. Both of those worked to avoid a resurgence of a fascist Axis and to counter the USSR and other communist powers - factual and important contexts that the Heritage Foundation ignores here.

That Democratic. liberal politicians led much of this more historically proximate push AGAINST communism and also proved manifestly favorable to America's working class, elevating worker rights and pay: all these well-known historical truths clash with many other elements of this author's arguments as well.

The level of abstraction here--"policymaking work done by the bureaucracies"--avoids any consideration of what this policy-making is supposed to do, how it works, or how it can actually improve Americans' lives. The strictly legalistic desciption here avoids any mention of the scientific study, technical know-how, and data-gathering that are so essential for agencies to operate fairly and effectively. For environmental arenas, this vague description poorly captures all the oversight and work that goes in to maintaining and protecting public lands. Nor does it offer any hint of how an agency like the EPA protects Americans from the predations of private polluters. For a more evidence-based discussion and contextualization of this rhetoric, see https://www.amacad.org/daedalus/administrative-state

Here the author slides into what political scientists who have studied it term "blatant dehumanization," high on those scales by which scholars seek to rank the different degrees of dehumanization. While the scholarship finds this kind of move among liberals as well as conservatives, "a change from the minimum to maximum value on the dehumanization measure [i.e., as here] is associated with a significant increase in perceived moral distance between the parties." Accusing their opponents of "predatory deviancy," Project 2025 authors express "moral distance" in a way that actively seems to cultivate and enhance that distance. https://link-springer-com.proxy.library.stonybrook.edu/article/10.1007/s11109-019-09545-w

The Soviet Union is mentioned here several times, in the context of a victory for Reagan over communism. But later on, when authors posit China as America's great contemporary rival and "global threat," Russia and its war with Ukraine go conspicuously unmentioned.

Language about "protecting children" is ubiquitous among all political parties. Conservatives' failure to substantially address climate change is a gaping hole in this rhetoric. Young people are disproportionately affected by the harms of climate change. They suffer emotional harm from witnessing places they love destroyed or threatened by sea rise, wildfires, hurricanes or other natural disasters. They suffer physical harm through losing access to recreational areas, especially winter sports. In addition, children are more susceptible to health harms from environmental crises like wildfire smoke.

After learning about climate change in school, young people are also more politically involved and visible since the 2010s. Millions marched worldwide in the 2019 Climate March. The UN has recognized them at the Conference-of-the-Parties (COP) meetings on climate change. They've also joined lawsuits like the Juliana vs. United States case to attempt to hold government to account https://climatecasechart.com/case/juliana-v-united-states/. Successful cases in Hawaii and Montana have done just that. https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-023-02592-8 https://apnews.com/article/hawaii-youth-climate-lawsuit-things-to-know-bcb791b6f23c7dc798bf9e3cd2b67f97<br /> They've formed youth-led and organized groups like Sunrise.

Conservative reaction to children is less about protection and more about control. They fail to recognize young people as citizens and political actors in their own right.

These tropes often frequently reflect adult worries and anxieties rather than real problems facing young people, something aptly demonstrated in conservative policies like book bans, banning subjects in schools (including climate change), and fearmongering over drag shows and the trans community. Youth activists face severe backlash from conservatives in the form of denigration to threats of violence.

Heritage has indeed been successful in getting Republican presidents' attention, and their recommendations have often been heeded, especially during the administrations of Ronald Reagan and of Donald Trump but also to some extent in Bill Clinton's presidency. https://www.influencewatch.org/non-profit/heritage-foundation/

The author assumes that for his audience this concept ("the Great Awokening") and this claim about it (that is a "totalitarian cult") need no further explication or evidence. The concept originated in certain discussions of the Black Lives Matter Movement, as initially interpreted in 2019 by the journalist Matthew Yglesias at Vox as well as a public "discussion" at the Manhattan Institute, a conservative think tank, featuring Eric Kaufman, a British politics scholar explicitly opposed "to what he calls the 'anti-white ideology of the cultural left.'" Kaufman argues, as one reviewer of his 2018 book put it, that "white racial self-interest...is legitimate and ignoring it is what fuels populism." Early coinages of a "Great Awokening" mainly mocked causes associated with the Black Lives Matter Movement like defunding the police. However, Project 2025 authors have distended its derogatory scope out to include many environmental concerns, especially climate change, https://www.vox.com/2019/3/22/18259865/great-awokening-white-liberals-race-polling-trump-2020 https://manhattan.institute/event/the-great-awokening https://www.newyorker.com/news/q-and-a/a-political-scientist-defends-white-identity-politics-eric-kaufmann-whiteshift-book https://www.jstor.org/stable/26931378

A phrase coined by Tom Wolfe in a 1970 article in New York magazine about a fund-raising party thrown by Leonard Berstein and his well-to-do New York City circle to support the Black Panthers https://nymag.com/article/tom-wolfe-radical-chic-that-party-at-lennys.html. The focus here only on the agency of presumably white elites, past as well as present, simply ignores any Black activism or the problems and perspectives it has sought to highlight.

An extremely thin account of the problems of low-income communities, eliding nearly all the accumulating socioeconomic and environmental forces that scholarship has illuminated as grounding their travails. These include white flight from downtowns, decades of growing income inequality, structural forms of racism, as well as environmental factors as well as the concentration of polluters and pollution in many disadvantaged communities. For instance: https://www.urban.org/urban-wire/poverty-results-structural-barriers-not-personal-choices-safety-net-programs-should-reflect-fact

Shows both compassion and fidelity to truth.

I like this quote because it shows the importance of music for Sonny. It gives him a way to cope with the negative emotions he is feeling.

This shows what they think about how history has shaped literacy to where it is today.

This is an example of disinformation. One could tell that this information is disinformation because it is an unreliable source that does not have proper knowledge behind their argument. This opinion and disinformation manipulates a public opinion with not much thought and research behind. This was very identifiable as disinformation because of the informal tone and word usage.

I was intrigued in this passage about Eliot’s use of sound and silence in this passage. The most significant sound here is the “dry sterile thunder without rain.” Normally, thunder typically signals an impending storm, a force of nature that is associated with rain and renewal and strength, particularly in desert landscapes where water brings life. In many religious and mythological traditions, thunder also represents divine intervention or communication—I’m thinking of the thunderclap accompanying the voice of God in the Old Testament or Zeus being the God of thunder in Greek mythology. However, in TWL, thunder is hollow: “dry” and “sterile,” literally incapable of life and disconnected from the vitalizing rain. This use of sound subverts its typical associations: rather than bringing life, the thunder is a dissonant echo of power without substance. The sterile thunder further amplifies the futility of hope, as it gives off some potential and hope (rain, renewal, salvation), but denies fulfillment.

Silence in this passage does not equal to stillness, but instead to an oppressive absence that heightens the sense of despair. “There is not even silence in the mountains” suggests that even the expected silence of a remote and secluded natural landscape has been perverted. In most literature, silence in nature is often portrayed as peaceful, meditative, or even holy. But the lack of silence in TWL is different. The silence here is almost anti-silence—a void. It emphasizes what should be present but isn’t: vitality and meaning. Eliot’s use of “not even silence” introduces a double negation that reflects the endless waiting for something that will never come. The silence is, in essence, louder than the thunder, because it is filled with the weight of absence. It is not a moment of peace or reflection, but one of desolation and the failure of human and divine communication.

These lines speak to the idea of rebirth/remaking, which is also present in one of Gerard De Nerval's descriptions of his dreams. He contemplates a remake of the world, and has the idea that "There was a massive conspiracy among all living creatures to re-establish the world in its original harmony" (De Nerval, 9). This is similar to Eliot's lines in the sense that something is being reborn/remade as a result of the contributions of living creatures. In these lines from "The Waste Land", a living person had to die in order to get planted (by presumably another living person) and contribute to life that grows from the ground, so the corpse is reborn in the sense that it's contributing to and likely a part of new life. Meanwhile, De Nerval's dream is more obvious with this idea, as it literally says that the remaking of the world was a plan by "all living creatures". Though not quite the same as rebirth, remaking something is still very similar because rebirth and remaking are both different types of renewal.

Central-place foragers is referring to an animal that gathers food based on distance and energy acquired for the maximum yield that they can specifically bring back home to a nest or base for consumption.

I did a presentation in Bio 2 about the Fiordland Crested Penguins of New Zealand who live in jungles and rocky coastlines. One of their biggest predators was dogs that are unaccompanied and kill the penguins or eggs. It is also important to add that humans can be cruel and smash laid eggs too.

There was very little information I could find online about evidence of early-human penguin consumption (however it can be inferred that humans would eat what is available, especially in such climates). However I did find this paper on a few known men to eat penguins during their explorations. It is important to note it is illegal for Americans to eat penguins because every species is now protected. https://www.ends-of-earth.com/history/pass-the-penguin/

would like to know more about this.

domesticity

Was this feeling all grief, or was part of it relieved for herself? She seemed to not enjoy being around him like you would someone you would love. She was now free from someone she only loved sometimes. The idea of domesticity could play a huge role in this. No one knew what was happening in the privacy of her own home.

Personification, her emotions and grief are dramatized, a storm is a strong force, the author is comparing her feelings to this

Personification of her feelings and thoughts as she processes his death. Was she waiting for guilt? Doubt? Was she just waiting for this to be a lie and for him to come back? Was she waiting to be okay with his death?

This is an example of Mal-information, due to its hateful message and harassment on Taylor Swift. Unlike misinformation that is a result of good intentions this message has intent for harm. This message contains harsh and rude language. I recognized this as mal information because of the harmful content. In any context these words would be seen as harmful to the recipient. This can cause a lot of mental harm and posts like this can also be seen as cyberbullying and sharing information/messages that cause harm. It is important to make sure you are aware of what you are reading online and be proactive with reporting information that create harm.

Important for your paper.

I really love this closing line. The author just spent a good amount of time thoroughly rehearsing how he tackles a research problem. The list of sources is wide and some may benefit a certain issue more than another. I think the point to be made is that even in seemingly undiscoverable cases, a thorough research structure will usually get the lawyer to a point where they can make a strong argument. They may not find the case exactly like what they need, but with the proper steps, if they couldn't find anything, then someone hid the book.

I think this series of events is quite interesting. As I have begun learning about legal researching and after going on the library tour, I was extremely overwhelmed by the amount of resources. I really like how the author breaks down his step by step process on how he tackles his research problems. He makes it seem like every lawyer can make a series of steps that works for them and apply it to different cases. Once you become proficient, you can build a routine that is most useful to your style.

This seems easier said than done. Learning to distill the question using the correct terms of art helps narrow the search within the vast body of law needed to be search. It feels especially high stakes, though, because if your phrasing is just a bit off you might miss the exact case or authority you're looking for.

It does seem like a good rule of thumb in most cases is to cast a wide net through secondary sources before zeroing in on specific cases. Another benefit to this system seems to be that there are built in checks to verify the authorities being cited remain relevant and won't get you embarrassed in front of a judge.

This is an example of Misinformation. This hair product was told to help the bonds in your hair to make it stronger. But after reading the reviews there were several reviews giving the product 1 star. This product was not intended cause harm but as the reviews has proven its product is not doing what its original purpose was. This is a perfect example of misinformation because its definition is "false information that is disseminated in good faith" which is what is happening here. The way I recognized this misinformation is when companies have very strong claims regarding the beauty industry. That is why after I saw claims of hair growth solely on this spray it flagged signs of mis-information.

We understand that the 15 year old boy received a letter from Brother Augustine a choir master of Lyne's community in norwich. In this letter Augustine described how he feels about the 15 boy year old. The boy seems as an angel that he can worship and it seems like there is a deep connection between the two . it has been noticed that the letter has a "sexually queer content" and they wrote about it in the newspaper. It was not common a choir to have such a "sexually queer" behaviour at that moment.

I think this is the most important things for teachers to know and do because it's all about setting our students up for success!

I feel like this is important especially in a PE setting because most of the time during class I will observing and making sure my students are doing and make sure they are staying on task

• 30% are believed to be involved in money laundering activities

• One of the means in which OCGs launder money is through coercing or recruiting external professionals such as lawyers

• Over 300 OCGs are involved in the meth market
• These OCGs produce meth domestically and internationally
• Meth superlabs are dominant in BC, Quebec, and Ontario

• Very violent; in fact, out of all organized crime groups, they're the ones who are the most likely to commit violence to fulfill their own interests or the interests of other organized groups who contract them(eg. mafia)

• Constantly changing as some are becoming more formal groups

• The crime of using force to obtain a desired object, typically money

• Sextortion: The use of fake profiles in dating apps or pornographic sites to lure an unsuspecting individual to a relationship or make them commit sexual acts.

• Often characterized by threat as the perpetrator threatens to post the sexual videos to the public to coerce the survivor to complying with their demands

*The illegal importing of fake products disguising as certain brands

• A subset of this crime is currency counterfeiting, which involves the illegal importing of fake money

• The process wherein the illegal acquisition of money is disguised to conceal its illicit origins and thus becomes "legitimate"

i wonder why there is a dash in the middle

is the belief that people are not bound by laws or rules, especially religious ones

is this referring to the essay itself?

the circle of life

this means something that is at its best or most beautiful state

gen z has more of an impact nowadays than adults ever did

I am confused who is being talked about here

confused about who the cowards are in this sentence

this phrase means the sky or "bright heaven" also can describe starts in the sky

giving someone a gentle warning or advice. can also be a reminder to do the right thing

...we can inhabit God?

Was this written before or after the party switch?

Side-eyeing this one...

What a line!!

This is ignoring a lot of progress and people who learned from those who came before them...everything we have right now has been steadily built up over time.

Never heard of this until now - I looked it up, and it's a religion referred to as The New Church and seems to be related to Christianity?

This sounds very discrediting to those who find strength through prayer and their religious doctrine.

What about prayer for personal protection? Where does that fall in the realm of the as mentioned goodness and selfishness?

I feel like the idea of postponing living how you want to for the sake of something else, like getting married/getting a degree/etc. is around a lot today as well.

Weirdly enough, this reminds me of the Illiad & the Odyssey.

For whatever reason, this was really powerful to me. It really is a certain feeling to be standing alone in a silent church - the architecture itself, stained glass and wood, feels more powerful than any preaching I've heard.

Especially because of the capitalization, I'd like to see what Emerson defines "truth" and "right" as.

It's that same rhetorical device I mentioned before!

Quoting the words of others does enhance the credibility of an argument, though!

They're their own individuals!

who to trust?

in the world that exists for man. ok.

few?

someone still has to supply him the corn, making him rely on someone else for his food, thus breaking self-reliance completely down

actually, I'm quite intrigued about WHAT man gets to be in the center of everything..... who? and, what would happen if every man chose to be in the spotlight? then what?

Then why preserve or analyze Shakespeare 100s of years later if it is not made by its study?

classsicccccccccc

Is man self helping if he relies on a deity?

It certainly makes sense of the community involvement and resources to determine extra-curricular options for students. In this analogy, if the key levers manipulated by school districts – such as pupil-per-child spending, ratios of students to teachers, and teacher credentials – provide a backbone, then the reinforcement that private fundraising can bring to the students’ education is a tremendous positive addition. The relationship reflects the crucial role of community resources and funding channels in enhancing what the school district delivers.

These circumstances are reflective of the persisting struggle faced by Latinos in Orange County – including in neighborhoods such as Santa Ana. Unemployment, poverty, educational inequalities, all of this do indeed leave a tough climate for citizens to succeed. Then there’s street violence and gangs that just make it all the more aggravating, rendering daily living and upward mobility harder for Latino people. This knowledge is critical in the quest to understand the root causes of these problems and seek a better life for these communities. Problems such as education, employment, and public safety could do a lot to mitigate some of those concerns.

Some scholars believe that materials intentionally recorded are specifically created for use in history or other academic fields, while those unintentionally created were not designed for scholarly purposes.

This is an interesting term that I haven’t seen before, but I have felt before. It’s such a striking feeling to know that it wasn’t you, but could have been, and your organization does nothing about it. You feel both a deep sadness for your peer/coworker/friend, and a conscious/subconscious fear of the same thing happening to you. It’s interesting that there is a term for it.

This is an interesting statistic that I hadn’t thought about before! Part-time work does not get you the same benefits as full-time, so this could contribute to health later on. I also appreciated the intersectional view, including race in these statistics.

This finding is really interesting to me, as I’ve never thought about the difference in groups. While men don’t usually have an example of doing non-paid work as a full time job (like raising a child and tending to the house), women do, and do not think of themselves as unemployed. I do still want to point out that it is a changing standard that men do not hold this role, as there is an emerging group of men who are working as caregivers for their families, rather than in paid work. Still, the generalization the book made is not an incorrect one, and very intriguing to me.

I once learned about binary in the csp course of ap. I think this design is great. Only the two numbers 0 and 1 have created a lot of great programs.

I once learned about Booleans in the CSP course of AP. I think this design is great. Only the two numbers 0 and 1 have created a lot of great programs.

The number of likes and comments on social media posts can provide valuable insights into user engagement and content popularity. These metrics often serve as indicators of a post's reach and impact, reflecting how well the content resonates with the audience⁠ However, it's important to note that while these numbers can be easily quantified (for example, 197,800 likes), their true meaning goes beyond mere statistics. They represent real people interacting with and responding to the content, potentially influencing opinions and sparking conversations⁠

It's interesting that from the human perspective we are just spelling out the word "Happy Birthday" as a whole, but never come to realize or pay attention to the fact that the string is actually a combination of the different letters taht make up the word.

This reminds me of the Java language I learned in CSE class. In Java, a series of characters is also called a string. But in Java, if you want to enter some specific symbols such as brackets and quotation marks in a string, you need to add "\" to make the machine recognize it smoothly.

This reminds me that computers have a similar problem when dealing with characters. This is because computers use an encoding set that can only contain a limited number of symbols and characters. Overall, computers, as powerful as they are, still have limitations in storing and processing numbers and symbols. These limitations come from the underlying hardware design and coding methods, not because the computer “doesn't want” to recognize everything, but more from technical trade-offs and design decisions.

This was a shock to me, I didn't know much about binary, but it turns out that it has both true and false states. And I also just learned about the direct mapping of boolean types to binary, which makes the whole data analysis much simpler to compute.

I am not very familiar with this data type but I find it fascinating how it can store a variety of different data types and the efficiency it offers when it comes to looking up pieces of information from a big list.

This is one reason I have found that has pushed me away from libertarian ideas. Oftentimes, I agree with the sentiment of a group but the members who support that group reflect much more on the group than the actual principles and thus when people like white-supremacists are your colleagues you know you are on the wrong side.

The whole idea inn how paper was first used was interesting to me we don't really here that now days

I didn't know about this experimentation and development.

its interesting to know the clock towers werre built and b whoom

This is an example of Dis-Information. Dis-information should have false content, fabricated content, and manipulation content. This post of X has all of these things. This account is providing false information regarding vaccines and that it is filled with " poison to kill you". This information is manipulating the viewer and spreading false information. As I read this post i noticed the aggression in the accounts text which flagged the post to have information that would most likely be inaccurate. After reading the full post I noticed just how harmful this could be if taken out of the wrong context.

It can take me a long time to get in the zone only to be interrupted.

Written prioritization of tasks helps me decide what to work on.

According to Anthropic's Claude LLM:

Point-in-time recovery refers to the ability to restore a database or system to a specific moment in the past. This feature allows administrators to recover data to a precise point before a failure, corruption, or unintended change occurred.

Key aspects of point-in-time recovery include:

1. Continuous backups: The system regularly captures changes to data.
2. Granular restoration: Allows recovery to any specific time within the backup window.
3. Minimal data loss: Helps reduce the amount of data lost between backups.
4. Flexibility: Useful for various scenarios like correcting human errors or recovering from cyberattacks.

This capability is especially valuable in database management systems and cloud storage solutions, providing a safety net for data integrity and business continuity.

А разве это не то же самое, что и source addressing?

Что-то я совсем не понял почему так? И как. это достигается в total order? Если в FIFO добавить еще какой-то сравнимый идентификатор, кроме времени отправки, то можно же сортировать по двум ключам: время и (например) хэш сообщения. И тогда будет конкретный порядок у этих 2 сообщений

I have never heard of the term Metadata previously, but I can see how it makes data interpretation much more simplified. It is important to know the context behind the data that is being collected.

I find this to be interesting. I never thought of splitting the data types in a post to understand it better, but it makes sense now. The Metadata is less about the tweet and more about the background information of the post, while the Data is the main tweet and the point the person is trying to make.

I think that the importance of metadata and the contextual power it holds is not often recognised. It adds another layer of depth to a post by including background information regarding the post. In addition, there is a sense of ownership of the post which is included as a part of metadata. However through a different perspective, it can also be deemed controversial as it is to some extent quite intrusive as it does expose user location, movements, behavioural insights and time stamps which a lot of users may not approve of.

1. The Future of Autonomous Vehicles

   How autonomous cars will reshape urban transportation. Ethical implications of self-driving vehicles. The potential for autonomous public transport systems.

2. Electric Vehicles (EVs) and Sustainability

   The role of electric vehicles in reducing carbon emissions. The challenges and opportunities in EV infrastructure development. Comparison between EVs and traditional fuel-powered vehicles: environmental and economic perspectives.

3. Hyperloop Technology and Its Impact on Long-Distance Travel

   How Hyperloop could revolutionize intercity transportation. Technological and financial challenges in implementing Hyperloop systems. Environmental benefits of ultra-high-speed transport.

4. Urban Mobility Innovations

   How e-scooters, bikes, and ride-sharing apps are changing urban commuting. The future of smart cities and the role of connected transportation systems. Policy challenges surrounding micromobility in congested cities.

5. AI and Machine Learning in Transportation

   How AI is optimizing traffic flow and reducing congestion. Predictive maintenance in transportation through machine learning. AI-driven logistics: revolutionizing freight and delivery systems.

6. Drones and Aerial Transportation

   The use of drones for delivery services: possibilities and challenges. The future of passenger drones and urban air mobility. Regulatory and safety concerns surrounding the widespread use of drones.

7. Sustainable Transport Solutions

   Innovations in public transport to make it more sustainable. The role of hydrogen fuel cells in the future of transportation. The importance of integrating renewable energy sources into transportation infrastructure.

8. The Role of Big Data in Transportation

   How data analytics can improve traffic management and reduce congestion. The impact of big data on the logistics and freight industry. Privacy concerns and the use of personal data in smart transportation systems.

Here is what ChatGPT said to my question:

There isn't a universally agreed-upon definition of a "Smart City," but the concept generally refers to an urban area that uses technology and data-driven solutions to improve the quality of life for its citizens, enhance sustainability, and optimize the efficiency of city services.

A common definition of a Smart City typically includes the following elements:

1. Use of Technology and IoT (Internet of Things)

• Smart cities leverage connected devices and sensors to gather data in real-time. These technologies are used to monitor various aspects of urban life, such as traffic flow, energy consumption, and public safety.

2. Data-Driven Decision-Making

• The data collected from IoT devices and other sources is analyzed to make informed decisions and improve the delivery of public services. This data helps city administrators optimize resources, reduce waste, and respond more quickly to emerging issues.

3. Sustainability and Efficiency

• Smart cities aim to reduce environmental impact by improving energy efficiency, reducing pollution, and promoting sustainable transportation. This often includes initiatives like smart grids, electric vehicle infrastructure, and waste management systems.

4. Citizen Engagement and Quality of Life

• A key feature of smart cities is the use of digital platforms and apps to engage citizens directly in decision-making and to improve their experience with city services. This could range from real-time public transportation updates to platforms that allow residents to report issues like streetlight outages.

5. Integrated Infrastructure

• Smart cities focus on creating seamless systems that integrate transportation, energy, healthcare, public safety, and other key services into a unified, technology-driven network. This improves efficiency and reduces redundancies in city operations.

6. Resilience and Flexibility

• A smart city is often designed to be adaptable and resilient, using predictive analytics to anticipate challenges such as extreme weather events, infrastructure failures, or population growth, and to respond proactively.

In summary, a Smart City uses advanced technology and data to create more efficient, sustainable, and citizen-centered urban environments. Some examples include cities like Barcelona, Singapore, and Amsterdam, which have adopted smart city technologies to improve urban living.

I think this is a great way to describe data and the benefits it has on simplifying the findings of our reality. It is also important to note that there are benefits and drawbacks to the collection of data as it may help us collect intel for future development, but also can cause a breach in privacy.

Data collection practices should prioritize inclusivity and respect for diverse gender identities. It's crucial to offer comprehensive and sensitive options that accurately represent the full spectrum of gender expressions. Thoughtful design of gender selection forms not only improves data accuracy but also demonstrates respect for all individuals, fostering a more inclusive environment.

This reminds me of anytime I hear someone describe something they have interest in. For instance, my mom really enjoys gardening but there are also times where she doesn't like to do it. That doesn't necessarily take away any of her love for that hobby. I think this helps the average person realize that Kobe isn't just a celebrity player but also a person that shares the same complex emotions as regular people.

Shows his dedication to play basketball because of his love for it

Tends to place somewhat similarly sounding or spelt words together at the ends of lines every so often, words like socks and clock, together and other.

Places periods and a line specifically for numbers at the for effect

Loops back to memories of his youth when he was just a kid excited to play, making another connection with the addressed audience

Bringing up a memory of being a young child and aspiring to become successful in what they love which can create a connection with the addressed audience

I found it interesting how the different datatypes are represented in Python. This is because I have been learning Java in case 121, and it gets tedious to specify the datatype on every variable you create. I also found it interesting to reflect on how social media posts affect the people who haven’t consented to being in them. An example that was given was about taking a selfie with a minor and posting it on social media without their consent. This is important to think about because a lot of people have been affected negatively by being put in social media posts that they didn’t consent to be in, so I believe it is important to ask for consent before filming someone and then posting it.

This reminds me most of measuring value of life in systems such as trolley problems or AI car decision making. Is a doctor more worthy of being saved than a musician? Or a depressed person? Or a felon? Where do you draw the line? If you draw a line, how many "felon lives" equals one doctor life? Utilitarianism to me isn't a morality system itself but a coping mechanism to allow humans to rationalize tough decisions. But when humans put the same logic in computers, it's not a coping strategy for a computer's feelings, but just a flawed series of priorities.

When charitable organization raising funds for patients suffering form specific illness, they may interview these patients and relatives of the patients to evoke empathy. However, they overlook the feeling of patients and their relatives. Letting patients recall their pains and speak in front of camera aggravates the pains of patients.

This paragraph makes a point that I really agree with. It is something that I have not considered before, but I have experienced personally. More specifically, many elders around me like to use their children's pictures as their social media profile pictures, and I didn't care about their behavior when I was young because I didn't use social media at all. But now I think it was really inappropriate, because it was really embarrassing to watch my childhood self wearing some funny clothes and being seen by everyone on social media. I think you need to be careful before using a particular image, or get permission from the people in the image.

This text points out the impact utilitarianism may have on moral decision-making. In other words, utilitarianism has certain limitations. In detail, if the data is not complete in the process of data collection, then its final result will have a certain bias. For example, only considering the impact of people you know and like on yourself, and ignoring the impact of people you don't know on yourself, then the results of the experiment are not comprehensive enough.

As technology advance, many programming work can be done remotely, Therefore, programmers doesn't need to transport around the fields for software modification. Instead, they could work anywhere they want.

This part makes me wonder if when we place constraints in the python language, how the syntax would look like. Another thing that I wonder about here is what makes a string with letters like "a" different from emojis in the makeup.

Are these the three primary colors that can make up all colors? This is very clever, only three colors can make up all colors, but I am curious how the computer can mix these colors in the correct proportions to produce the exact color? At the same time, how is white composed?

This reminds me of every time I try to take a picture of my computer screen with my phone camera. The image always shows tiny red, green, and blue lights, which is probably due to a similar reason. A display is made up of many tiny pixels, and each of these pixels is composed of subpixels that emit red, green, or blue light. When you try to capture the screen, the camera picks up these individual subpixels, revealing the RGB pattern that our eyes don’t normally see. This highlights how the underlying structure of digital displays, just like the limitations of computer storage, affects what we see and how information is processed.

There are different benefits to different ways of representing time, such as including the region in the time information, which is very helpful for people in foreign countries so that we can be sure of when the tweet was actually sent. For example, if I'm studying in the US and my family sends a tweet from China, not including the time in the region would make it impossible to determine exactly which “yesterday” the tweet was sent.

Fun fact

Look up Barbie

I think Data and numbers are the type of information humans absorb the most. It simplifies it and makes it easier to understand, but this leaves gaps in the data that people kind of fill in themselves. Since the data doesn't tell the whole story and is more of just the final product, it isn't always reliable, and we shouldn't only focus on that.

The article's apple example ignores the variations in each apple, such as size, color, and quality, by simply counting the quantity of apples. Similar to this, when you record a conversation, the emotional details like tone and intonation are lost even though the text material is recorded. Moreover, taking a picture can only depict a portion of the scene; it cannot depict the entire scene. Every simplification technique has its limitations, but the effectiveness of each technique is determined by how well it can deliver relevant information for a given task in a given situation.

This makes more sense

I have wondered why Germany was able to so easily march into France, this makes sense.

Vichy Water - Casablanca

(Not designing one myself, but breaking down a funny social media sight that I've seen) Pithee was a sight designed as a way to view and rank "shitposts" at a rapid pace. To accomplish this, the sight is laid out with a banner and 5 blocks in the middle. The banner is small, has the logo and donation links in the corners, and has leaderboard/profile/post in center. The 5 blocks have 4 randomized posts by other users, the "most voted on winner" from the last 15 minutes at the top, and a shuffle button at the bottom.

This layout prioritizes reading anonymous user's posts, deprioritizes users' personal scores, and makes branding and donation opportunities only for those who want to support the platform.

I really appreciate the author's emphasis on the student environment. Technology isn't the goal in itself; it is a tool for the student to use.

does this discount hostile relationships

wtf

not one "true" concrete meaning, just the theoretically formulated one or the ones imbued by the actors

oriented towards others- doesn't need to be co-operative

most cases not concrete- combination of above orientatiosn

"irrational" value driven values that are not in the individuals best interest

pre-plannedness and consciousness of value-rational action distinguishes from actual

first type of social action- expectations of behavior from environment and other people- rational for what someone wants

need to distinguish meaningful orientation form influences even though its hard to figure out what is the true social action

who its for and how the actor articulates why they do something is no wholly conscious, often isn't.

if individual is replicating action for the purpose of social orientation (fashion trends for status) it is meaningful social action.

copying of others behavior as useful means to an end isn't inherently social

actions within crows not considered at a high level of meaning but if it does have implications there are many possible interpretations.

atonement: the reconciliation of god and humans with Jesus christ

how do we witness "gods work" despite killing him?

mocking the "madman" for believing in god in this alternative universe where religion haven't taken a significant place as our world today

Test anno

this is a test

Honestly, I am a bit lost reading about fiscal neutrality and what it means for the amount of funding schools will get. Mostly about the taxing part of the it, I'm a bit confused on how this changes funding in rich and poor districts. It also says here that fiscal neutrality would "respect the wishes of local taxpayers", so is it more about "getting their money's worth", but not necessarily looking at students' needs and basing funding off of that?

Giving an equal amount of funding to each student is an example of equality but schools should instead meet needs based on equity. Instead of treating everyone the same and giving the same amount of resources and funding for each student, giving based on the individual needs of students would instead help a lot more. Some students may live in poverty, while others may not. Some students may have disabilities that require more resources.

Fighting Mexican discrimination

March for national action instead of the slow-moving state governments which prolonged segregation.

signed Civil Rights Act

Murdered civil rights leader

New York civil rights movement

A brave movement in such a racist city.

This artists has never seen a wolf before lmao

guess you CAN fight fire with fire

Dog is domesticated/merciful but has breeding that makes it superior to the wolf in some way, both strengths and weaknesses lead to deaths of both. Likewise acidic concoctions are usually destroyed or transformed by alkaline mixtures, but itself transforms the other

Arabic writings finally reincorporated into European knowledge and discourse by 1618 after humanist rejection

Helped military "servicemen"

Mortgage insurance and protection

refinanced mortgages so that people could have more time to pay their loans

Brown tried to desegregate schools but this phrase was almost fatal to the attempt because some state's "deliberate speed" was very slow aka never.

Levitt invested in suburban developmen for affordable housing

desegregation of interstate travel

Supreme Court outlawed discrimination against Black people in house sales.

Supreme Court ruled to eliminate racist housing restrictions

I do think these limits make sense but if there are more specific examples listed here I would be clearer. Data analysis and visualization are meant to narrate latent info and give out a more general description of numbers, but here the author mentioned the "limit". How do we consider the limit?

Beginning of understanding stable vs unstable elements, based on electrons later on. At least there's some Chymystry here

Oh yeah, this book is very good at not supposing things. Glad to see the extreme dedication and care made to fact checks

As odd as this all is, it does capture the Aristotelean idea of observing nature in its "natural state," i.e. Don't put a cat into water to see how it will act, same with Dragons and women I suppose?

Let him cook?

HIJOS trying to combat the attrocities.

Military Dictatorships are detrimental in the community.

Preparing the community for crimes and trauma.

Doh!

beginning of break down

law intervention

I think that any sort of contribution that users make to the platform that is visible to other users should be at least one or two steps away. This is important because it is a HUGE deterrent for bots and malicious content if their actions are not immediately reflected on the platform and this would reduce TOS-breaking activity on the platform.

I would never allow users to alter someone else's profile including removing any of their followers or posts since that would defeat the point of a social media. Additionally I think that not even the company that runs a social media should be able to do that since it restricts the freedom of the users of the platform.

Welcome back.

Over the next few lessons and the wider course, we'll be covering storage a lot.

And the exam expects you to know the appropriate type of storage to pick for a given situation.

So before we move on to the AWS specific storage lessons, I wanted to quickly do a refresher.

So let's get started.

Let's start by covering some key storage terms.

First is direct attached or local attached storage.

This is storage, so physical disks, which are connected directly to a device, so a laptop or a server.

In the context of EC2, this storage is directly connected to the EC2 hosts and it's called the instance store.

Directly attached storage is generally super fast because it's directly attached to the hardware, but it suffers from a number of problems.

If the disk fails, the storage can be lost.

If the hardware fails, the storage can be lost.

If an EC2 instance moves between hosts, the storage can be lost.

The alternative is network attached storage, which is where volumes are created and attached to a device over the network.

In on-premises environments, this uses protocols such as iSCSI or Fiber Channel.

In AWS, it uses a product called Elastic Blockstore known as EBS.

Network storage is generally highly resilient and is separate from the instance hardware, so the storage can survive issues which impact the EC2 host.

The next term is ephemeral storage and this is just temporary storage, storage which doesn't exist long-term, storage that you can't rely on to be persistent.

And persistent storage is the next point, storage which exists as its own thing.

It lives on past the lifetime of the device that it's attached to, in this case, EC2 instances.

So an example of ephemeral storage, so temporary storage, is the instance store, so the physical storage that's attached to an EC2 host.

This is ephemeral storage.

You can't rely on it, it's not persistent.

An example of persistent storage in AWS is the network attached storage delivered by EBS.

Remember that, it's important for the exam.

You will get questions testing your knowledge of which types of storage are ephemeral and persistent.

Okay, next I want to quickly step through the three main categories of storage available within AWS.

The category of storage defines how the storage is presented either to you or to a server and also what it can be used for.

Now the first type is block storage.

With block storage, you create a volume, for example, inside EBS and the red object on the right is a volume of block storage and a volume of block storage has a number of addressable blocks, the cubes with the hash symbol.

It could be a small number of blocks or a huge number, that depends on the size of the volume, but there's no structure beyond that.

Block storage is just a collection of addressable blocks presented either logically as a volume or as a blank physical hard drive.

Generally when you present a unit of block storage to a server, so a physical disk or a volume, on top of this, the operating system creates a file system.

So it takes the raw block storage, it creates a file system on top of this, for example, NTFS or EXT3 or many other different types of file systems and then it mounts that, either as a C drive in Windows operating systems or the root volume in Linux.

Now block storage comes in the form of spinning hard disks or SSDs, so physical media that's block storage or delivered as a logical volume, which is itself backed by different types of physical storage, so hard disks or SSDs.

In the physical world, network attached storage systems or storage area network systems provide block storage over the network and a simple hard disk in a server is an example of physical block storage.

The key thing is that block storage has no inbuilt structure, it's just a collection of uniquely addressable blocks.

It's up to the operating system to create a file system and then to mount that file system and that can be used by the operating system.

So with block storage in AWS, you can mount a block storage volume, so you can mount an EBS volume and you can also boot off an EBS volume.

So most EC2 instances use an EBS volume as their boot volume and that's what stores the operating system, and that's what's used to boot the instance and start up that operating system.

Now next up, we've got file storage and file storage in the on-premises world is provided by a file server.

It's provided as a ready-made file system with a structure that's already there.

So you can take a file system, you can browse to it, you can create folders and you can store files on there.

You access the files by knowing the folder structure, so traversing that structure, locating the file and requesting that file.

You cannot boot from file storage because the operating system doesn't have low-level access to the storage.

Instead of accessing tiny blocks and being able to create your own file system as the OS wants to, with file storage, you're given access to a file system normally over the network by another product.

So file storage in some cases can be mounted, but it cannot be used for booting.

So inside AWS, there are a number of file storage or file system-style products.

And in a lot of cases, these can be mounted into the file system of an operating system, but they can't be used to boot.

Now lastly, we have object storage and this is a very abstract system where you just store objects.

There is no structure, it's just a flat collection of objects.

And an object can be anything, it can have attached metadata, but to retrieve an object, you generally provide a key and in return for providing the key and requesting to get that object, you're provided with that object's value, which is the data back in return.

And objects can be anything, there can be binary data, they can be images, they can be movies, they can be cat pictures, like the one in the middle here that we've got of whiskers.

If they can be any data really that's stored inside an object.

The key thing about object storage though is it is just flat storage.

It's flat, it doesn't have a structure.

You just have a container.

In AWS's case, it's S3 and inside that S3 bucket, you have objects.

But the benefits of object storage is that it's super scalable.

It can be accessed by thousands or millions of people simultaneously, but it's generally not mountable inside a file system and it's definitely not bootable.

So that's really important, you understand the differences between these three main types of storage.

So generally in the on-premises world and in AWS, if you want to utilize storage to boot from, it will be block storage.

If you want to utilize high performance storage inside an operating system, it will also be block storage.

If you want to share a file system across multiple different servers or clients or have them accessed by different services, that can often be file storage.

If you want large access to read and write object data at scale.

So if you're making a web scale application, you're storing the biggest collection of cat pictures in the world, that is ideal for object storage because it is almost infinitely scalable.

Now let's talk about storage performance.

There are three terms which you'll see when anyone's referring to storage performance.

There's the IO or block size, the input output operations per second, pronounced IOPS, and then the throughput.

So the amount of data that can be transferred in a given second, generally expressed in megabytes per second.

Now these things cannot exist in isolation.

You can think of IOPS as the speed at which the engine of a race car runs at, the revolutions per second.

You can think of the IO or block size as the size of the wheels of the race car.

And then you can think of the throughput as the end speed of the race car.

So the engine of a race car spins at a certain revolutions, whether you've got some transmission that affect that slightly, but that transmission, that power is delivered to the wheels and based on their size, that causes you to go at a certain speed.

In theory in isolation, if you increase the size of the wheels or increase the revolutions of the engine, you would go faster.

For storage and the analogy I just provided, they're all related to each other.

The possible throughput a storage system can achieve is the IO or the block size multiplied by the IOPS.

As we talk about these three performance aspects, keep in mind that a physical storage device, a hard disk or an SSD, isn't the only thing involved in that chain of storage.

When you're reading or writing data, it starts with the application, then the operating system, then the storage subsystem, then the transport mechanism to get the data to the disk, the network or the local storage bus, such as SATA, and then the storage interface on the drive, the drive itself and the technology that the drive uses.

There are all components of that chain.

Any point in that chain can be a limiting factor and it's the lowest common denominator of that entire chain that controls the final performance.

Now IO or block size is the size of the blocks of data that you're writing to disk.

It's expressed in kilobytes or megabytes and it can range from pretty small sizes to pretty large sizes.

An application can choose to write or read data of any size and it will either take the block size as a minimum or that data can be split up over multiple blocks as it's written to disk.

If your storage block size is 16 kilobytes and you write 64 kilobytes of data, it will use four blocks.

Now IOPS measures the number of IO operations the storage system can support in a second.

So how many reads or writes that a disk or a storage system can accommodate in a second?

Using the car analogy, it's the revolutions per second that the engine can generate given its default wheel size.

Now certain media types are better at delivering high IOPS versus other media types and certain media types are better at delivering high throughput versus other media types.

If you use network storage versus local storage, the network can also impact how many IOPS can be delivered.

Higher latency between a device that uses network storage and the storage itself can massively impact how many operations you can do in a given second.

Now throughput is the rate of data a storage system can store on a particular piece of storage, either a physical disk or a volume.

Generally this is expressed in megabytes per second and it's related to the IO block size and the IOPS but it could have a limit of its own.

If you have a storage system which can store data using 16 kilobyte block sizes and if it can deliver 100 IOPS at that block size, then it can deliver a throughput of 1.6 megabytes per second.

If your application only stores data in four kilobyte chunks and the 100 IOPS is a maximum, then that means you can only achieve 400 kilobytes a second of throughput.

Achieving the maximum throughput relies on you using the right block size for that storage vendor and then maximizing the number of IOPS that you pump into that storage system.

So all of these things are related.

If you want to maximize your throughput, you need to use the right block size and then maximize the IOPS.

And if either of these three are limited, it can impact the other two.

With the example on screen, if you were to change the 16 kilobyte block size to one meg, it might seem logical that you can now achieve 100 megabytes per second.

So one megabyte times 100 IOPS in a second, 100 megabytes a second, but that's not always how it works.

A system might have a throughput cap, for example, or as you increase the block size, the IOPS that you can achieve might decrease.

As we talk about the different AWS types of storage, you'll become much more familiar with all of these different values and how they relate to each other.

So you'll start to understand the maximum IOPS and the maximum throughput levels that different types of storage in AWS can deliver.

And you might face exam questions where you need to answer what type of storage you will pick for a given level of performance demands.

So it's really important as we go through the next few lessons that you pay attention to these key levels that I'll highlight.

It might be, for example, that a certain type of storage can only achieve 1000 IOPS or 64000 IOPS.

Or it might be that certain types of storage cap at certain levels of throughput.

And you need to know those values for the exam so that you can know when to use a certain type of storage.

Now, this is a lot of theory and I'm talking in the abstract and I'm mindful that I don't want to make this boring and it probably won't sink in and you won't start to understand it until we focus on some AWS specifics.

So I am going to end this lesson here.

I wanted to give you the foundational understanding, but over the next few lessons, you'll start to be exposed to the different types of storage available in AWS.

And you will start to paint a picture of when to pick particular types of storage versus others.

So with that being said, that's everything I wanted to cover.

I know this has been abstract, but it will be useful if you do the rest of the lessons in this section.

I promise you this is going to be really valuable for the exam.

So thanks for watching.

Go ahead and complete the video.

When you're ready, you can join me in the next.

Welcome back and in this brief demo lesson I want to give you some experience of working with both EC2 instance connect as well as connecting with a local SSH client.

Now these are both methods which are used for connecting to EC2 instances both with public IP version 4 addressing and IP version 6 addressing.

Now to get started we're going to need some infrastructure so make sure that you're logged in as the IAM admin user into the general AWS account which is the management account of the organization and as always you'll need the northern Virginia region selected.

Now in this demonstration you are going to be connecting to an EC2 instance using both instance connect and a local SSH client and to use a local SSH client you need a key pair.

So to create that let's move across to the EC2 console, scroll down on the left and select key pairs.

Now you might already have key pairs created from earlier in the course.

If you have one created which is called A4L which stands for Animals for Life then that's fine.

If you don't we're going to go ahead and create that one.

So click on create key pair and then under name we're going to use A4L.

Now if you're using Windows 10 or Mac OS or Linux then you can select the PEM file format.

If you're using Windows 8 or prior then you might need to use the putty application and to do that you need to select PPK.

But for this demonstration I'm going to assume that you're using the PEM format.

So again this is valid on Linux, Mac OS or any recent versions of Microsoft Windows.

So select PEM and then click on create key pair and when you do it's going to present you with a download.

It's going to want you to save this key pair to your local machine so go ahead and do that.

Once you've done that from the AWS console attached to this lesson is a one-click deployment link.

So I want you to go ahead and click that link.

That's going to move you to a quick create stack screen.

Everything should be pre-populated.

The stack name should be EC2 instance connect versus SSH.

The key name box should already be pre-populated with A4L which is a key that you just created or one which you already had.

Just move down to the very bottom, check the capabilities box and then click on create stack.

Now you're going to need this to be in a create complete state before you continue with the demo lesson.

So pause the video, wait for your stack to change to create complete and then you're good to continue.

Okay so this stacks now in a create complete status and we're good to continue.

Now if we click on the resources tab you'll see that this has created the standard animals for life VPC and then it's also created a public EC2 instance.

So this is an EC2 instance with a public IP version 4 address that we can use to connect to.

So that's what we're going to do.

So click on services and then select EC2 to move to the EC2 console.

Once you're there click on instances running and you should have a single EC2 instance A4L-publicEC2.

Now the two different ways which I want to demonstrate connecting to this instance in this demo lesson are using a local SSH client and key based authentication and then using the EC2 instance connect method.

And I want to show you how those differ and give you a few hints and tips which might come in useful for production usage and for the exams.

So if we just go ahead and select this instance and then click on the security tab you'll see that we have this single security group which is associated to this instance.

Now make sure the inbound rules is expanded and just have a look at what network traffic is allowed by this security group.

So the first line allows port 80 TCP which is HTTP and it allows that to connect to the instance from any source IP address specifically IP version 4.

We can tell it's IP version 4 because it's 0.0.0.0/0 which represents any IP version 4 address.

Next we allow port 22 using TCP and again using the IP version 4 any IP match and this is the entry which allows SSH to connect into this instance using IP version 4.

And then lastly we have a corresponding line which allows SSH using IP version 6.

So we're allowing any IP address to connect using SSH to this EC2 instance.

And so connecting to it using SSH is relatively simple.

We can right click on this instance and select connect and then choose SSH client and AWS provides us with all of the relevant information.

Now note how under step number three we have this line which is chmod space 400 space a4l.pm.

I want to demonstrate what happens if we attempt to connect without changing the permissions on this key file.

So to do that right at the bottom is an example command to connect to this instance.

So just copy that into your clipboard.

Then I want you to move to your command prompt or terminal.

In my case I'm running macOS so I'm using a terminal application.

Then you'll need to move to the folder where you have the PEM file stored or where you just downloaded it in one of the previous steps.

I'm going to paste in that command which I just copied onto my clipboard.

This is going to use the a4l.pm file as the identity information and then it's going to connect to the instance using the EC2-user local Linux user.

And this is the host name that it's going to connect to.

So this is my EC2 instance.

Now I'm going to press enter and attempt that connection.

First it will ask me to verify the authenticity of this server.

So this is an added security method.

This is getting the fingerprint of this EC2 instance.

And it means that if we independently have a copy of this fingerprint, say from the administrator of the server that we're connecting to, then we can verify that we're connecting to that same server.

Because it's possible that somebody could exploit DNS and replace a legitimate DNS name with one which points at a non-legitimate server.

So that's important.

You can't always rely on a DNS name.

DNS names can be adjusted to point at different IP addresses.

So this fingerprint is a method that you can use to verify that you're actually connecting to the machine or the instance which you think you are.

Now in this case, because we've just created this EC2 instance, we can be relatively certain that it is valid.

So we're just going to go ahead and type yes and press enter.

And then it will try to connect to this instance.

Now immediately in my case, I got an error.

And this error is going to be similar if you're using macOS or Linux.

If you're using Windows, then there is a chance that you will get this error or won't.

And if you do get it, it might look slightly different.

But look for the keyword of permissions.

If you see that you have a permissions problem with your key, then that's the same error as I'm showing on my screen now.

Basically what this means is that the SSH client likes it when the permissions on these keys are restricted, restricted to only the user that they belong to.

Now in my case, the permissions on this file are 644.

And this represents my user, my group, and then everybody.

So this means this key is accessible to other users on my local system.

And that's far too open to be safe when using local SSH.

Now in Windows, you might have a similar situation where other users of your local machine have read permissions on this file.

What this error is telling us to do is to correct those permissions.

So if we go back to the AWS console, this is the command that we need to run to correct those permissions.

So copy that into your clipboard, move back to your terminal, paste that in, and press enter.

And that will correct those permissions.

Now under Windows, the process is that you need to edit the permissions of that file.

So right click properties and then edit the security.

And you need to remove any user access to that file other than your local user.

And that's the same process that we've just done here, only in Windows it's GUI based.

And under Mac OS or Linux, you use CHmod.

So now that we've adjusted those permissions, if I use the up arrow to go back to the previous command and press enter, I'm able to connect to the CC2 instance.

And that's using the SSH client.

To use the SSH client, you need to have network connectivity to the CC2 instance.

And you need to have a valid SSH key pair.

So you need the key stored on your local machine.

Now this can present scalability issues because if you need to have a large team having access to this instance, then everybody in that team need a copy of this key.

And so that does present admin problems if you're doing it at scale.

Now in addition to this, because you're connecting using an SSH client from your local machine, you need to make sure that the security group of this instance allows connections from your local machines.

So in this case, it allows connections from any source IP address into this instance.

And so that's valid for my IP address.

You need to make sure that the security group on whichever instance you're attempting to connect to allows your IP address as a minimum.

Now another method that you can use to connect to EC2 is EC2 instance connect.

Now to use that, we right click, we select connect, and we have a number of options at the top.

One of these is the SSH client that we've just used.

Another one is EC2 instance connect.

So if we select this option, we're able to connect to this instance.

It shows us the instance ID, it shows us the public IP address, and it shows us the user to connect into this instance with.

Now AWS attempt to automatically determine the correct user to use.

So when you launch an instance using one of the default AMIs, then it tends to pick correctly.

However, if you generate your own custom AMI, it often doesn't guess correctly.

And so you need to make sure that you're using the correct username when connecting using this method.

But once you've got the correct username, you can just go ahead and click on connect, and then it will open a connection to that instance using your web browser.

It'll take a few moments to connect, but once it has connected, you'll be placed at the terminal of this EC2 instance in exactly the same way as you were when using your local SSH.

Now one difference you might have noticed is at no point where you prompted to provide a key.

When you're using EC2 instance connect, you're using AWS permissions to connect into this instance.

So because we're logged in using an admin user, we have those permissions, but you do need relevant permissions added to the identity of whoever is using instance connect to be able to connect into the instance.

So this is managed using identity policies on the user, the group or the role, which is attempting to access this instance.

Now one important element of this, which I want to demonstrate, if we go back to instances and we select the instance, click on security, and then click on the security group, which is associated with this instance.

Scroll down, click on edit inbound rules, and then I want you to locate the inbound rule for IP version 4 SSH, SSH TCP 22, and then it's using this catchall, so 0.0.0.0/0, which represents any IP version 4 address.

So go ahead and click on the cross to remove that, and then on that same line in the source area, click on this drop down and change it to my IP.

So this is my IP address, yours will be different, but then we're going to go ahead and save that rule.

Now just close down the tab that you've got connected to instance connect, move back to the terminal, and type exit to disconnect from that instance, and then just rerun the previous command.

So connect back to that instance using your local SSH client.

You'll find that it does reconnect because logically enough, this connection is coming from your local IP address, and you've changed the security group to allow connections from that address, so it makes sense that this connection still works.

Moving back to the console though, let's go to the EC2 dashboard, go to running instances, right click on this instance, go to connect, select EC2 instance connect, and then click on connect and just observe what happens.

Now you might have spent a few minutes waiting for this to connect, and you'll note that it doesn't connect.

Now this might seem strange at this point because you're connecting from a web browser, which is running on your local machine.

So it makes sense that if you can connect from your local SSH client, which is also running on your local machine, you should be able to connect using EC2 instance connect.

Now this might seem logical, but the crucial thing about EC2 instance connect is that it's not actually originating connections from your local machine.

What's happening is that you're making a connection through to AWS, and then once your connection arrives at AWS, the EC2 instance connect service is then connecting to the EC2 instance.

Now what you've just done is you've edited the security group of this instance to only allow your local IP address to connect, and this means that the EC2 instance connect service can no longer connect to this instance.

So what you need in order to allow the EC2 instance connect service to work is you either need to allow every source IP address, so 0.0.0.0.0/0, but of course that's bad practice for production usage.

It's much more secure if you go to this URL, and I'll make sure that I include this attached to this lesson.

This is a list of all of the different IP ranges which AWS use for their services.

Now because I have this open in Firefox, it might look a little bit different.

If I just go to raw data, that might look the same as your browser.

If you're using Firefox, you have the ability to open this as a JSON document.

Both of them show the same data, but when it's JSON, you have the ability to collapse these individual components.

But the main point about this document is that this contains a list of all of the different IP addresses which are used in each different region for each different service.

So if we wanted to allow EC2 instance connect for a particular region, then we might search for instance, locate any of these items which have EC2 instance connect as the service, and then just move through them looking for the one which matches the region that we're using.

Now in my case, I'm using US East One, so I'd scroll through all of these IP address ranges looking for US East One.

There we go, I've located it.

It's using this IP address range.

So I might copy this into my clipboard, move back to the EC2 console, select the instance, click on security, select the security group of this instance, scroll down, edit the inbound rules, remove the entry for my IP address, paste in the entry for the EC2 instance connect service, and then save that rule.

And now what you'll find if you move back to your terminal and try to interact with this instance, you might be able to initially because the connection is still established, but if you exit and then attempt to reconnect, this time you'll see that you won't be able to connect because now your local IP address is no longer allowed to connect to this instance.

However, if you move back to the AWS console, go to the dashboard and then instance is running, right click on the instance and put connect, select instance connect and then click on connect.

Now you'll be allowed to connect using EC2 instance connect.

And the reason for that just to reiterate is that you've just edited the security group of this EC2 instance and you've allowed the IP address range of the EC2 instance connect service.

So now you can connect to this instance and you could do so at scale using AWS permissions.

So I just wanted to demonstrate how both of those connection methods work, both instance connect and using a local SSH client.

That's everything I wanted to cover.

So just go ahead and move back to the CloudFormation console, select this stack that you created using the one click deployment, click on delete and then confirm that process.

And that will clear up all of the infrastructure that you've used in this demo lesson.

At this point though, that's everything I wanted to cover.

So go ahead, complete this video and when you're ready, I'll look forward to you joining me in the next.

Μιση αληθεια.

Η Αιγυπτος συνηθως εκλεινε τα συνορα με Γαζα ειτε επειτα απο πιεση των ΗΠΑ και του Ισραηλ, ειτε επειτα απο ενοπλες επιθεσεις της Χαμας. Απο το 2021 η Αιγυπτος τα ειχε ανοιξει για παντα.

Ομως παντα τον ελεγχο του τι μπαινει τον ασκουσαν οι Ισραηλινοι (σε συμφωνια με την Αιγυπτο) και διέταζαν τα κλεισιματα, με εφαρμογη των συμφωνιων του Camp David (1979):

The Philadelphi Accord between Israel and Egypt, based on the principles of the 1979 peace treaty, turned over border control to Egypt, while the supply of arms to the Palestinian Authority was subject to Israeli consent.

Under the Agreed Principles for Rafah Crossing, part of the Agreement on Movement and Access (AMA) of 15 November 2005, EUBAM was responsible for monitoring the Border Crossing. The agreement ensured Israel authority to dispute entrance by any person.[14]

...after Hamas' takeover of the Gaza Strip (2007) it was closed permanently except for infrequent limited openings by Egypt.

Απο το 2024 τον ελεγχο του περασματος τον εχουν αμιγως Ισραηλινα στρατευματα, και ειναι κλειστο ακομη και σε ανθρωπιστικη βοηθεια.

Welcome back.

This is part two of this lesson.

We're going to continue immediately from the end of part one.

So let's get started.

Now this is an overview of all of the different categories of instances, and then for each category, the most popular or current generation types that are available.

Now I created this with the hope that it will help you retain this information.

So this is the type of thing that I would generally print out or keep an electronic copy of and refer to constantly as we go through the course.

By doing so, whenever we talk about particular size and type and generation of instance, if you refer to the details in notes column, you'll be able to start making a mental association between the type and then what additional features you get.

So for example, if we look at the general error post category, we've got three main entries in that category.

We've got the A1 and M6G types, and these are a specific type of instance that are based on ARM processors.

So the A1 uses the AWS designed Graviton ARM processor, and the M6G uses the generation 2, so Graviton 2 ARM based processor.

And using ARM based processors, as long as you've got operating systems and applications that can run under the architecture, they can be very efficient.

So you can use smaller instances with lower cost and achieve really great levels of performance.

The T3 and T3A instance types, they're burstable instances.

So the assumption with those type of instances is that your normal CPU load will be fairly low, and you have an allocation of burst credits that allows you to burst up to higher levels occasionally, but then return to that normally low CPU level.

So this type of instance, T3 and T3A, are really good for machines which have low normal loads with occasional bursts, and they're a lot cheaper than the other type of general purpose instances.

Then we've got M5, M5A and M5N.

So M5 is your starting point, M5A uses the AMD architecture, whereas normal M5s just use Intel, and these are your steady state general instances.

So if you don't have a burst requirement, if you're running a certain type of application server, which requires consistent steady state CPU, then you might use the M5 type.

So maybe a heavily used exchange email server that runs normally at 60% CPU utilization, that might be a good candidate for M5.

But if you've got a domain controller or an email relay server that normally runs maybe at 2%, 3% with occasional burst, up to 20% or 30% or 40%, then you might want to run a T type instance.

Now, not to go through all of these in detail, we've got the computer optimized category with the C5 and C5N, and they go for media encoding, scientific modeling, gaming servers, general machine learning.

For memory optimized, we start off with R5 and R5A.

If you want to use really large in-memory applications, you've got the X1 and the X1E.

If you want the highest memory of all A to the U instances, you've got the high memory series.

You've got the Z1D, which comes with large memory and NVMe storage.

Then Accelerate Computing, these are the ones that come with these additional capabilities.

So the P3 type and G4 type, those come with different types of GPUs.

So the P type is great for parallel processing and machine learning.

The P type is kind of okay for machine learning and much better for graphics intensive requirements.

You've got the F1 type, which comes with field programmable gate rays, which is great for genomics, financial analysis and big data, anything where you want to program the hardware to do specific tasks.

You've got the Inf1 type, which is relatively new, custom designed for machine learning, so recommendation for casting analysis, voice conversation, anything machine learning related, look at using that type, and then storage optimalities.

So these come with high speed, local storage, and depending on the type you pick, you can get high throughput or maximum IO or somewhere in between.

So keep this somewhere safe, printed out, keep it electronically, and as we go through the course and use the different type of instances, refer to this and start making the mental association between what a category is, what instance types are in that category, and then what benefits they provide.

Now again, don't worry about memorizing all of this in the exam, you don't need it, I'll draw out anything specific that you need as we go through the course, but just try to get a feel for which letters are in which categories.

If that's the minimum that you can do, if I can give you a letter like the T type, or the C type, or the R type, if you can try and understand the mental association which category that goes into, that will be a great step.

And there are ways we can do this, we can make these associations, so C stands for compute, R stands for RAM, which is a way for describing memory, we've got I which stands for IO, D which stands for dense storage, G which stands for GPU, P which stands for parallel processing, there's lots of different mind tricks and mental association that we can do, and as we go through the course, I'll try and help you with that, but as a minimum, either print this out or store it somewhere safe, and refer to it as we go through the course.

The key thing to understand though is how picking an instance type is specific to a particular type of computing scenario.

So if you've got an application that requires maximum CPU, look at compute optimized, if you need memory, look at memory optimized, if you've got a specific type of acceleration, look at accelerated computing, start off in the general purpose instance types, and then go out from there as you've got a particular requirement to.

Now before we finish up, I did want to demonstrate two really useful sites that I refer to constantly, I'll include links to both of these in a lesson text.

The first one is the Amazon documentation site for Amazon EC2 instance types, this gives you a follow-up view of all the different categories of EC2 instances.

You can look in a category, a particular family and generation of instance, so T3, and then in there you can see the use cases that this is suited to, any particular features, and then a list of each instance size and exactly what allocation of resources that you get and then any particular notes that you need to be aware of.

So this is definitely something you should refer to constantly, especially if you're selecting instances to use for production usage.

This other website is something similar, it's EC2incidences.info, and it provides a really great sortable list which can be filtered and adjusted with different attributes and columns, which give you an overview of exactly what each instance provides.

So you can either search for a particular type of instance, maybe a T3, and then see all the different sizes and capabilities of T3, as well as that you can see the different costings for those instance types, so Linux on demand, Linux reserve, Windows on demand, Windows reserve, and we'll talk about what this reserve column is later in the course.

You can also click on columns and show different data for these different instance types, so if I scroll down you can see which offer EBS optimization, you can see which operating systems these different instances are compatible with, you've got a lot of options to manipulate this data.

I find this to be one of the most useful third-party sites, I always refer back to this when I'm doing any consultancy, so this is a really great site.

And again it will go into the lesson text so definitely as you're going through the course, experiments and have a play around with this data, and just start to get familiar with the different capabilities of the different types of EC2 instances.

With that being said, that's everything I wanted to cover in this lesson, you've done really well, and there's been a lot of theory, but it will come in handy in the exam and real-world version usage.

So go ahead, complete this video, and when you're ready, you can join me in the next.

Although I haven't heard this term, I believed in this idea wholeheartedly. It's hard to truly understand someone's perspective and no one understands a perspective than someone living it. It is important to receive feedback from all different types of people to create the best product possible.

Welcome back.

In this lesson, I'm going to talk about the various different types of EC2 instances.

I've described an EC2 instance before as an operating system plus an allocation of resources.

Well, by selecting an instance type and size, you have granular control over what that resource configuration is, picking appropriate resource amounts and instance capabilities to mean the difference between a well-performing system and one which causes a bad customer experience.

Don't expect this lesson though to give you all the answers.

Understanding instance types is something which will guide your decision-making process.

Given a situation, two AWS people might select two different instance types for the same implementation.

The key takeaway from this lesson will be that you don't make any bad decisions and you have an awareness of the strengths and weaknesses of the different types of instances.

Now, I've seen this occasionally feature on the exam in a form where you're presented with a performance problem and one answer is to change the instance type.

So, to minimum with this lesson, I'd like you to be able to answer that type of question.

So, know for example whether a C type instance is better in a certain situation than an M type instance.

If that's what I want to achieve, we've got a lot to get through, so let's get started.

At a really high level, when you choose an EC2 instance type, you're doing so to influence a few different things.

First, logically, the raw amount of resources that you get.

So, that's virtual CPU, memory, local storage capacity and the type of that storage.

But beyond the raw amount, it's also the ratios.

Some type of instances give you more of one and less of the other.

Instance types suited to compute applications, for instance, might give you more CPU and less memory for a given dollar spend.

An instance designed for in-memory caching might be the reverse.

They prioritize memory and give you lots of that for every dollar that you spend.

Picking instance types and sizes, of course, influences the raw amount that you pay per minute.

So, you need to keep that in mind.

I'm going to demonstrate a number of tools that will help you visualize how much something's going to cost, as well as what features you get with it.

So, look at that at the end of the lesson.

The instance type also influences the amount of network bandwidth for storage and data networking capability that you get.

So, this is really important.

When we move on to talking about elastic block store, for example, that's a network-based storage product in AWS.

And so, for certain situations, you might provision volumes with a really high level of performance.

But if you don't select an instance appropriately and pick something that doesn't provide enough storage network bandwidth, then the instance itself will be the limiting factor.

So, you need to make sure you're aware of the different types of performance that you'll get from the different instances.

Picking an instance type also influences the architecture of the hardware that the instance has run on and potentially the vendor.

So, you might be looking at the difference between an ARM architecture or an X86 architecture.

You might be picking an instance type that provides Intel-based CPUs or AMD CPUs.

Instance type selection can influence in a very nuanced and granular way exactly what hardware you get access to.

Picking an appropriate type of instance also influences any additional features and capabilities that you get with that instance.

And this might be things such as GPUs for graphics processing or FPGAs, which are field-programmeable gator-rays.

And if you think of these as a special type of CPU that you can program the hardware to perform exactly how you want.

So, it's a super customizable piece of compute hardware.

And so, certain types of instances come up with these additional capabilities.

So, it might come with an allocation of GPUs or it might come with a certain capacity of FPGAs.

And some instance types don't come with either.

You need to learn which to pick for a given type of workload.

Easy to instance is a group into five main categories which help you select an instance type based on a certain type of workload.

But we've got five main categories.

The first is general purpose.

And this is and always should be your starting point.

Instances which fall into this category are designed for your default steady-state workloads.

They've got fairly even resource ratios, so generally assigned in an appropriate way.

So, for a given type of workload, you get an appropriate amount of CPU and a certain amount of memory which matches that amount of CPU.

So, instances in the general purpose category should be used as your default and you only move away from that if you've got a specific workload requirement.

We've also got the compute optimized category and instances that are in this category are designed for media processing, high-performance computing, scientific modeling, gaming, machine learning.

And they provide access to the latest high-performance CPUs.

And they generally offer a ratio and more CPU is offered in memory for a given price point.

The memory optimized category is logically the inverse of this, so offering large memory allocations for a given dollar or CPU amount.

This category is ideal for applications which need to work with large in-memory data sets, maybe in-memory caching or some other specific types of database workloads.

The accelerated computing category is where these additional capabilities come into play, such as dedicated GPUs for high-scale parallel processing and modeling, or the custom programmable hardware, such as FPGAs.

Now, these are niche, but if you're in one of the situations where you need them, then you know you need them.

So, when you've got specific niche requirements, the instance type you need to select is often in the accelerated computing category.

Finally, there's the storage optimized category and instances in this category generally provide large amounts of superfast local storage, either designed for high sequential transfer rates or to provide massive amounts of IO operations per second.

And this category is great for applications with serious demands on sequential and random IO, so things like data warehousing, elastic search, and certain types of analytic workloads.

Now, one of the most confusing things about EC2 is the naming scheme of the instance types.

This is an example of a type of EC2 instance.

While it might initially look frustrating, once you understand it, it's not that difficult to understand.

So, while our friend Bob is a bit frustrated at understanding difficulty, understanding exactly what this means, by the end of this part of the lesson, you will understand how to decode EC2 instance types.

The whole thing, end to end, so R5, DN, .8x, large, this is known as the instance type.

The whole thing is the instance type.

If a member of your operations team asks you what instance you need or what instance type you need, if you use the full instance type, you unambiguously communicate exactly what you need.

It's a mouthful to say R5, DN, .8x, large, but it's precise and we like precision.

So, when in doubt, always give the full instance type an answer to any question.

The letter at the start is the instance family.

Now, there are lots of examples of this, the T family, the M family, the I family, and the R family.

There's lots more, but each of these are designed for a specific type or types of computing.

Nobody expects you to remember all the details of all of these different families, but if you can start to try to remember the important ones, I'll mention these as we go through the course, then it will put you in a great position in the exam.

If you do have any questions where you need to identify if an instance type is used appropriately or not, as we go through the course and I give demonstrations which might be using different instance families, I will be giving you an overview of their strengths and their weaknesses.

The next part is the generation.

So, the number five in this case is the generation.

AWS iterate often.

So, if you see instance type starting with R5 or C4 as two examples, the C or the R, as you now know, is the instance family and the number is the generation.

So, the C4, for example, is the fourth generation of the C family of instance.

That might be the current generation, but then AWS come along and replace it with the C5, which is generation five, the fifth generation, which might bring with it better hardware and better price to performance.

Generally, with AWS, always select the most recent generation.

It almost always provides the best price to performance option.

The only real reason is not to immediately use the latest generation, as if it's not available in your particular region or if your business has fairly rigorous test processes that need to be completed before you get the approval to use a particular new type of instance.

So, that's the R-part cupboard, which is the family, and the five-part cupboard, which is the generation.

Now, across to the other side, we've got the size.

So, in this case, 8x large or 8x large, this is the instance size.

Within a family and a generation, there are always multiple sizes of that family and generation, which determine how much memory and how much CPU the instance is allocated with.

Now, there's a logical and often linear relationship between these sizes.

So, depending on the family and generation, the starting point can be anywhere as small as the nano.

Next to the nano, there's micro, then small, then medium, large, extra large, 2x large, 4x large, 8x large, and so on.

Now, keep in mind, there's often a price premium towards the higher end.

So, it's often better to scale systems by using a larger number of smaller instance sizes.

But more on that later when we talk about high availability and scaling.

Just be aware, as far as this section of the course goes, that for a given instance family and generation, you're able to select from multiple different sizes.

Now, the bit which is in the middle, this can vary.

There might be no letters between the generation and size, but there's often a collection of letters which denote additional capabilities.

Common examples include a lowercase a, which signifies amdcpu, so lowercase b, which signifies NVMe storage, lowercase n, which signifies network optimized, lowercase e, for extra capacity, which could be RAM or storage.

So, these additional capabilities are not things that you need to memorize, but as you get experience using AWS, you should definitely try to mentally associate them in your mind with what extra capabilities they provide.

Because time is limited in an exam, the more that you can commit to memory than know instinctively, the better you'll be.

Okay, so this is the end of part one of this lesson.

It was getting a little bit on the long side, and so I wanted to add a break.

It's an opportunity just to take a rest or grab a coffee.

Part two will be continuing immediately from the end of part one.

So, go ahead, complete the video, and when you're ready, join me in part two.

eLife Assessment

The study from Frank and colleagues reports potentially important cryo-EM observations of mouse glutamatergic synapses isolated from adult mammalian brains. The authors used a combination of mouse genetics to generate PSD95-GFP labeling in vivo, a rapid synaptosome isolation and cryo-protectant strategy, and cryogenic correlated light-electron microscopy (cryoCLEM) to record tomograms of synapses, which together provide convincing support for their conclusions. Controversially, the authors report that forebrain glutamatergic synapses do not contain postsynaptic "densities" (PSD), a defining feature of synapse structure identified in chemically-fixed and resin-embedded brain samples. The work questions a long-standing concept in neurobiology and is primarily of interest to specialists in synaptic structure and function.

this sets up fraziers argument on the idea that the politics represented in both works are more complicated and cant be 'simply' summarized using familiar terms, which I do really agree with. Butler's characters express these ideas directly. In parable of the sower, Lauren with her very outspoken nature on serious real life issues, through Lauren’s own philosophy of Earthseed, Butler creates a new perspective of understanding survival, leadership, and responsibility that goes above the more conventional political discourse both during the period it was published and currently. Lauren’s voice in the novel acts as a critique of already existing political systems while offering an alternative route that majorly reflects an intense comprehension of power, government, and aligence based in adaptability and inclusivity. while Mutu's visual work conveys them more implicitly, really resisting the idea of being put in a box.