In the Regency era, it was common for people to visit private homes and estates. There was a "presumption of access to private houses" (Clarke, "A fine house richly furnished: Pemberley and the visiting of country houses") In this discussion, Elinor is chiding Marianne for breaking one of the cardinal rules of visiting a great house: visiting while the family who owned said house was at home. "If the family were away, [a] housekeeper would feel free to show the house to visitors" but "access [could be] refused because the family were at home" (Clarke). By entering Allenham while Mrs. Smith was at home, Marianne has intruded. The fact that she was also alone with Willoughby, a man who is not a relative of hers, with no supervision from others could cause people to question Marianne's virtue.

"Among family, friends and romantic partners, exchanging a lock of hair was a sign of mutual esteem and deep affection. Upon the death of a loved one, locks of hair were often cut and kept as a way to both honor and remember the dead... [H]air was both an intimately personal souvenir of a specific person and an (almost) everlasting memento." ("Hairwork jewelry" on the Fashion Institute of Design and Merchandising (FIDM) Museum of Los Angeles' blog) Locks of hair were often kept in the form of jewelry, as we see Edward Ferrars wearing later in the novel. Hair jewelry ranged from simpler rings like the one Edward wears to complex necklaces, brooches, and other pieces.

(Image: "Gold and enamel mourning ring with hair of the deceased under glass, c. 1855." from The Victor Mourning Blog) (Image: "Hairwork necklace. 1850-1890. Gift of Andrea Tice. 2008.46.101" from the FIDM Museum Blog)

The term "Christian name" refers to one's first or given name, which was often given at the time of an infant's baptism (Thurston, Catholic Encyclopedia). An excerpt from Etiquette for Ladies, published in Philadelphia in 1840 by Lea & Blanchard, details some specifics on the use of Christian names in different types of company: "In speaking, it is always proper to give the name of Sir, Madam, or Miss... It is equally good [etiquette], when alone with [one's husband], to designate him by his Christian name." The use of a Christian name, or given name, was incredibly intimate and for the most part only meant to be used by family members in private spaces.

In the Regency period, women were not permitted to ride alone, except under very specific circumstances, and were usually expected to be accompanied by a chaperone. This chaperone was often a groom, whose duties also included caring for the horses. "A lady was permitted to drive her own carriage, but only about the town attended by a groom, or by herself on the family estate... It was acceptable to go out riding or driving with a man as long as a groom or other chaperone was in attendance... It was acceptable to go out driving or riding with a man without a chaperone if he was a relative of close family friend" (Kloester, Georgette Heyer's Regency World).

"Named after Guinea in West Africa. A former British gold coin that was first minted in 1663 from gold imported from West Africa...It was replaced by the sovereign from 1817" (OED).

Here Berger is making a reference to the history of Indigenous peoples in Canada and how they have been affected through the degradation of nature around them. The history of white people bringing disease and other hardships to indigenous people is a well documented one. But the less talked about part is how modern technologies affect on the environment has affected them. Andrew Stuhl writes, "the number of reindeer in Barrow- the largest town in the region with a population of 1,200 Inuit- had dropped from an estimated 35,000 in 1935 to 5,000 in 1940." This dramatic decrease in reindeer population had a lasting effect on the Inuit population as they eventually had to negotiate with the Canadian government to get reindeer herds as a means of subsistence. As technology advanced, over fishing and whaling practices in the 1980s and 1990s drove some species of fish to near extirpation from the Arctic. Furthermore climate change is having a profound effect on indigenous populations in the more recent past. The raise of temperature is creating less sea ice and making the migrating patterns of whales and caribou less predictable. This causes it to be more difficult for Inuit hunters to track and capture their food. All of these things put together shows how white people's affect on the environment has made life harder for the indigenous populations of the Arctic. Ford, James D.1, james.ford@mcgill.ca. "Indigenous Health and Climate Change." American Journal Of Public Health 102, no. 7 (July 2012): 1260-1266. Social Sciences Full Text (H.W. Wilson), EBSCOhost (accessed May 8, 2017). Stuhl, Andrew. Unfreezing the Arctic science, colonialism, and the transformation of Inuit lands. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 2016.

Berger uses the term "non consuming use" to define activities in the wilderness that do not have a lasting impact on nature. He talks about how these non consuming acts are practiced by the Native People and some recreational activities. He contrasts this with the idea that commercial industry exploits the wilderness in a way that permanently affects it. An interesting example to look at here is commercial hunting and fishing practices in the North compared to recreational and indigenous ones. Commercial hunting and fishing operations does not have a decorated history in the Arctic. Whaling practices have led to the collapse of the North Atlantic Right whale which was at one point considered to be the most abundant species in the Arctic. As of today "it is arguably the most threatened large cetacean in the Atlantic Ocean, if not the world, with an estimated minimum population size of 313 animals." This dramatic decrease in population is not only seen in whales but also in many common fish species in the area as well. In 1992 there was a moratorium put on cod fishing in Canada because the population was so over harvested that there was only a few schools left in the ocean. Both of these situation brought a lot of economic hard ship to fishing regions in Canada that relied on these populations for work. The irony in this situation comes from how the large scale fishing operations caused a ban for indigenous populations too even for their comparatively miniscule action.

Parsons, E.C.M., J. Patrick Rice, and Laleh Sadeghi. "Awareness of whale conservation status and whaling policy in the US--a preliminary study on American Youth." Anthrozoos 23, no. 2 (2010): 119+. Global Reference on the Environment, Energy, and Natural Resources (accessed May 8, 2017).

In this section, Berger talks about how he believes that there should be an amendment to allow for the creation of wilderness parks. The Berger Inquiry was first published in 1977 and by "1988 amendments also enabled the Governor in Council to give legal recognition to wilderness zones within parks, heightening the level of protection on these lands by prohibiting any activities that are 'likely to impair the wilderness character of the area." The National Parks Act has been an evolving document and has changed throughout its history. The first national park in Canada was established in 1885 which was Banff National Park but the National Parks Act was not passed until 1930. This act allowed for Canadian Parliament to create designated areas as national parks where industrial development and activities like hunting would be restricted. As of 2000 there was over 68,327,742 hectares of land designated as a national parks which is about 6.84 of the land in Canada. While this is a good percentage, there has been a push to add more national parks in different areas of the country. There was a proposal to add over 15,000 square kilometers and establish five new regions to the national marine conservation areas. In general, Canadians care about their national parks and "this significance has been reflected in the additions to the amount of area protected and changes to legislation and policy over the last decade." Dearden, Philip, and Jessica Dempsey. "Protected areas in Canada: decade of change." Canadian Geographer 48, no. 2 (July 20, 2004): 225-239. Social Sciences Full Text (H.W. Wilson), EBSCOhost (accessed May 8, 2017).

This idea has been an overarching theme in western society for the last half century but the roots of this problem goes back further than that. Since the industrial revolution, Americans have developed the reputation as the most wasteful people and rightfully so. Berger refers to the early days of frontier settlement in North America where there was flagrant misuse of natural resources. It is easy to think of examples of this but one that stands out above the rest was the extermination of the American Buffalo in the Great Plains. Ranchers and hunters were just killing these animals and leaving the corpses out in the fields. Other examples of this is the different mining practices that were used throughout North America. This includes surface mining which is a very intrusive process that leaves the entire area barren and destroyed. In many areas, "because of [surface] mining, the environment has been very bad, and destroyed the balance of the ecology, the stability of the water level and the water quality around the mine for long term." Fortunately, there has been a much stronger movement through sustainable practices within the new generation. Earth Day was created in 1970 to bring awareness to the environment and conservation efforts. In Vancouver, there is a yearly march and celebration led by high school students to help raise awareness of issues facing our planet like climate change and pollution. One student says "without this Earth, without the stuff it provides for us, and if we don't do something about it, it's going to be too late in the future." "Vancouver youth help raise awareness about climate change." Xinhua News Agency, April 27, 2015. Global Reference on the Environment, Energy, and Natural Resources (accessed May 8, 2017).

Yi, Pan, Liu Yang, Yang Min, WangLinyan, Yang Shuangchun, and Zhang Jinhui. "The environmental impact assessments of oil shale in in-situ mining and surface mining." International Journal of Applied Environmental Sciences 7, no. 4 (2012): 403+. Global Reference on the Environment, Energy, and Natural Resources (accessed May 8, 2017).

Sigurd Olson was a writer in the 20th century who focused on nature and how humans interact with nature. Olson grew up in Minnesota and lived there most of his life where he found his love of nature by traveling to different parts of the state. Olson played a big role in drafting the Wilderness Act of 1964 passed. He was responsible for establishing a few national parks including Voyageurs National Park in northern Minnesota, Alaska's Arctic National Wildlife Refuge, and Point Reyes National Seashore in California. Olson also held the position of President of the Wilderness Society and National Parks Association at different times in his life. With all of the work he did, Olson was a well known figure in the conservationist and environmentalist field. Olson wrote many books about the wilderness of different places he traveled and many of them focused on places in the northern states of the US. Olson had a simplistic view of nature as he felt "the wilderness offers simplicity and brings people closer to nature. It is also a place where a person can find a renewed sense of identity." Olson's legacy is continued by his preservation work and the many places he was able to establish wilderness protection laws. In 1978 Olson was able to get full wilderness status granted to the Boundary Waters Canoe Area which was the area he grew up near.

"Sigurd Olson, a Writer And Environmentalist." The New York Times. January 14, 1982. Accessed May 07, 2017. http://www.nytimes.com/1982/01/15/obituaries/sigurd-olson-a-writer-and-environmentalist.html. Nelson, Michael. "Wilderness." In Encyclopedia of Environmental Ethics and Philosophy, edited by J. Callicott and Robert Frodeman, 402-405. Vol. 2. Detroit: Macmillan Reference USA, 2009. Global Reference on the Environment, Energy, and Natural Resources (accessed May 7, 2017).

Wilderness is a very vague term that get used a lot in this chapter. Berger uses the definition which is “A wilderness, in contrast with those areas where man and his own works dominate the landscape, is hereby recognized as an area where the earth and its community of life are untrammeled by man, where man himself is a visitor who does not remain.” This definition covers the technical and legal definition of wilderness, but wilderness has many meanings that has changed over time. Before modern technology, the wilderness was a place that was dangerous and unforgiving. Because of this perception of the wild, there was a sense of masculinity to travelling in the through it. Even today this idea manifests in pop culture as shows such a Man vs Wild are still popular that focus on humans overcoming the elements in the wilderness. However, wilderness has a even deeper meaning than that. There has been a spiritual element to the wilderness that has been integral to North American society for centuries. From the Pilgrims to Thomas Cole to Thoreau to John Muir to Bob Marshall to Aldo Leopold, the spiritual aspect of the wild led these men on philosophical movements. John Nagle argues "the spiritual benefit which people receive from a stay in the wilderness is not a tangible item, but it must be an important consideration in legislation of America is truly dedicated to a somewhat idealistic sense of values." This notion has been seen throughout history as there was a clear sense of spirituality recognized when the Wilderness Act of 1964 was passed. Nagle, John Copeland. "The spiritual values of wilderness." Environmental Law, Fall 2005, p. 955+. Global Reference on the Environment, Energy, and Natural Resources, find.galegroup.com/grnr/infomark.do?&source=gale&idigest=6f8f4a3faafd67e66fa023866730b0a1&prodId=GRNR&userGroupName=bucknell_it&tabID=T002&docId=A141802024&type=retrieve&PDFRange=%5B%5D&contentSet=IAC-Documents&version=1.0. Accessed 6 May 2017.

Wallace Stegner in an American author, environmentalist, and historian who grew up in the western part of the country where most of his writing was focused. He wrote about his life moving around the western states and growing up with nature having an important role in his life. Berger is quoting from Stegner's Wilderness Letter that he wrote in 1960. This quote is a good reflection of what Stegner's message was. Even though Stegner was a writer, he was an avid conservationist that was vocal with his beliefs. Once place Stegner lived was in Salt Lake City, Utah. He attended the University of Utah there and received his B.A. in 1930. Stegner continued his academics at the University of Iowa where he got his doctorate in 1935. Stegner went on to write Pulitzer Prize winning Angel of Repose in 1971 and National Book award winning the The Spectator Bird in 1976. Stegner's legacy as a writer and a conservationist can be seen throughout the places he lived. At the University of Utah the Wallace Stegner Prize in Environmental or American Western History was established in 2010. This award shows the lasting impact of Stegner's life on the subject. Stegner writes "Something will have gone out of us as a people if we ever let the remaining wilderness be destroyed." Stegner is one of the fathers of the conservation effort of the wilderness in the United States and it is appropriate that Berger quotes him here. Stegner, Wallace. "Earth words." Mother Earth News, August-September 2004, 128. Global Reference on the Environment, Energy, and Natural Resources (accessed May 6, 2017). http://find.galegroup.com/grnr/infomark.do?&source=gale&idigest=6f8f4a3faafd67e66fa023866730b0a1&prodId=GRNR&userGroupName=bucknell_it&tabID=T003&docId=A119782042&type=retrieve&PDFRange=%5B%5D&contentSet=IAC-Documents&version=1.0.

In this context, Berger is using the Wilderness Act to reference how wilderness is defined. This is a very famous definition for the eloquent way the wilderness is described. "A wilderness, in contrast with those areas where man and his own works dominate the landscape, is hereby recognized as an area where the earth and its community of life are untrammeled by man, where man himself is a visitor who does not remain.” After many drafts and eight years of work the Wilderness Act was signed in 1964 by President Lyndon B. Johnson. Since the passage of this act there has been much debate about what land is "wilderness" and what should be done with this land. The main reason for the act is to protect these lands from development and industrialization. But another part of the reason was to increase recreational use of this land such as hiking, canoeing and fishing. "Over the decades an obvious contradiction has emerged between preservation and access." The National Forest Service is reluctant to put up signs and other infrastructure in these areas because it goes against the foremost goal of this act. Unfortunately, this is causing safety concerns for recreationists. Overall the Wilderness Act has made over 170,000 square miles into "wilderness" and has protect this land for the last half century. Gourlie, Don. "The Wilderness Act at 50." Environmental Law, Spring 2014, 285+. Global Reference on the Environment, Energy, and Natural Resources (accessed May 6, 2017). http://find.galegroup.com/grnr/infomark.do?&source=gale&idigest=6f8f4a3faafd67e66fa023866730b0a1&prodId=GRNR&userGroupName=bucknell_it&tabID=T002&docId=A375290680&type=retrieve&PDFRange=%5B%5D&contentSet=IAC-Documents&version=1.0.

Sequoia National Park is a large land reserve in southern California which is home to the Sequoia National Forest. This forest is home to five out of the ten largest trees in the world and contains the single largest tree known as the General Sherman Tree. General Sherman stands at a whopping 275ft and a 14ft diameter at the middle of the tree. Sequoia National Park was founded in 1890 and was part of the initial effort to create more national parks to conserve the different habitats and ecosystems in the United States. The mission of the national parks was to bring awareness of the beauty of our environment. National parks were created to have designated areas that were set aside for humans to enjoy in a natural state. This concept still holds true today in parks as research shows "that this wilderness, in contrast to where most visitors live, is highly valued for clean air and water, natural sounds, low density of people, lack of motorized noise, and where evidence of human influence is relatively unnoticeable." Sequoia and other national parks around it are a large source of eco-tourism in the area. Eco-tourism is becoming a more prevalent force in the world today and some countries such as Costa Rica have much of their entire economy built on it.

Watson A, Martin S, Christensen N, Fauth G, Williams D. The Relationship Between Perceptions of Wilderness Character and Attitudes Toward Management Intervention to Adapt Biophysical Resources to a Changing Climate and Nature Restoration at Sequoia and Kings Canyon National Park](http://insert-your-link-here.com))mber 2015;56(3):653-663. Available from: GreenFILE, Ipswich, MA. Accessed April 25, 2017.

Alexis de Tocqueville is a French politician and historian that is best known for his work, "Democracy in America". Tocqueville wrote this piece with two volumes in 1835 and 1840 after visiting the United States. He traveled around the country making observations on American society compared to his European standard. His work focused on the many aspects of US government and policy ranging from manifest destiny to slavery. A major part of de Tocqueville's work was his study of the different races and how they interact. He drew the picture of America "where three typical characters predominate: the black who suffer in slavery, the Indian who is free in idleness, and the white American who is at work and at work. Profit." Tocqueville focused on other parts of American society as well that Berger references at this part. Here, Berger is quoting a section about how American's drive for expansion led to the destruction of the environment which. Tocqueville was a revolutionary with this observation as he was one of the first people to document the devastation that industrialization can bring to the natural world. Over the next decades this idea would be adopted by many including Theodore Roosevelt and lead to the creation of National Parks across the United States. Berger is using this quote because this idea is still extremely prevalent in the conservation effort today. Berger concedes that expansion of technology and industrialization is inevitable but that sometimes the cost of this advancements is not worth the punishment to the environment. Tocqueville's observations are still major issue in developing countries where massive industrialization is just beginning.

Denys Delâge and Catherine Desbarats and Jean-Philippe Warren. "Alexis de Tocqueville in" wild "country." The Tocqueville Review / La revue Tocqueville 36, no. 2 (2015): 175-204. Https://muse.jhu.edu/ (accessed April 17, 2017).

French-Canadians is a term used when describing the families that speak French and live mostly in Quebec, Canada. Settling in this area long before the French and Indian War, the French began their settlements in the early 1600's. They were Roman Catholic, and had a distinct culture from their Protestant southern neighbors settling what would be called New England at the same time. These French-Canadians settled modern day Montreal and Quebec City, along with many other municipalities in the hundreds of miles in Eastern Canada and along the St. Lawrence River. They were farmers, priests, traders and voyageurs. Their biggest influence in the United States came when large numbers of French Canadians immigrated to work in the mills of New England in the era of 1870-1920.

Moogk, Peter N. La Nouvelle France: The Making of French Canada: a Cultural History. East Lansing: Michigan State University Press, 2000.

The comparison between Marianne showing her talents in music and displaying her abilities, and Lady Middleton, who used to play piano before marriage, depicts the importance of “female accomplishments” during this time. Women were to attain certain achievements (drawing, playing music, etc.) to appeal to their male suitors (Hughes, "Gender Roles in the 19th Century,"British Library).

This scene shows Marianne and Margaret's critical views on the physical appearance and age of eligible bachelors. Despite the girls' opinions of Colonel Brandon as an unattractive bachelor, his age as an eligible companion was not uncommon during this period due to his stature in society. According to Shoemaker, "In general, the gap in marriage ages increased higher up the social scale. There was a five-year gap among the London middle-class in the early eighteenth century, which extended to as much as ten [years] among the wealthiest groups, such as merchants, the gentry, and the aristocracy" (Shoemaker, Gender in English Society 1650-1850, 92).

Said of a woman who determines to gain the affections of a man....Origin: from the French nautical phrase 'mettre le cap sur' - 'to set a course for'... Women commonly wore caps of white linen or muslin in the 18th century. Any woman who was intent on attracting a man would certainly wear her best cap, probably ornamented with lace and ribbons, and set it at the most becoming angle… By the early 19th century the phrase was common enough to have taken on a metaphorical usage. ('Set One's Cap At' - the Meaning and Origin of This Phrase. Phrasefinder.)

"In Jane Austen’s day most people walked to work, town, church, and market square, or to their neighbors. Six miles was not considered an undue distance to travel by foot one way. The gentry were another breed. They either owned their own carriages or hired a public horse cab." (Victorian and Edwardian Horse Cabs by Trevor May, a Book Review, Jane Austen's World)

“Hair jewelry served as a physical demonstration of internal feelings, similar to the idea of sensibility” (Absorption in Austen,On Hair Jewelry). The act of a man carrying a woman's lock of hair is a symbol of love between the two lovers. It is an act of affection as the lock of hair can also represent a woman's beauty and virtue. By gifting a lock of hair a woman is in a way promising herself to her lover, and in return the man carries and protects the lock which is his way of symbolizing that her will protect her virtue.

Refers to William Gilpin who is believed to have first introduced the idea of the aesthetic ideal of the picturesque, first in 1768 in his book Essays on Prints and then later expanded his idea in his travel book Observations on the River Wye, and Several Parts of South Wales, etc. Relative Chiefly to Picturesque Beauty; made in the Summer of the Year 1770.(Oxford Dictionary of National Biography)

“William Shakespeare (1564-1616) wrote Hamlet c. 1599-1601. In Austen’s time, Hamlet was a well-known play.”

At this time it was not unusual for women to go to London or other urban settings for access to different experiences. They offered many opportunities for new social interaction and there is ample evidence of women traveling to London and partaking of its many social activities. There were also many opportunities of new experiences for pleasure and excitement, some through social interaction. http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/trail/victorian_britain/women_out/urban_life_04.shtml

Short for 'post-chaise', defined as ""a horse-drawn, usually four-wheeled carriage (in Britain usually having a closed body, the driver or postilion riding on one of the horses) used for carrying mail and passengers, esp. in the 18th and early 19th centuries"" (OED).

The tradesmen or middle sort are below Gentry and make their money by working. They could have as much or more money than the gentry class in some cases, but their status was always considered as lower.

http://www4.wittenberg.edu/academics/hist/crom/brit/socstruc.html

In the early 19th Century, a journey from Norland, Sussex (the fictional home of the Dashwood's) to London was a three-day trip. Travel was not safe; Marianne was also at courting age and needed a chaperone. Single women during this period of history had to have chaperones because they could not ever be alone with a man, unless it was for business.(ProQuest, Jane Austen, Lambdin, 2000).

"The London post (1801-1839) for conveyance of letters, etc. at an ordinary charge of twopence each" (OED).

"An attendant or foot servant; one employed to run ahead of or alongside a coach, carriage" (OED).

"The flesh of a calf as an article of diet. A calf...as killed for food or intended for this purpose. Now rare. Chiefly in names of dishes. Made from veal, as veal pie, veal broth, veal cutlet, veal gravy" (OED).

Two things: first, in other writings by Ong where he uses this situation, he cites the loss of Roman baby talk, a purely oral, mostly feminine form of the language that we have forever lost to history. Second, this also reminds me of Nina Baym's "Melodramas of Beset Manhood," and her assertion of the male "literature" and female "best seller" and how historically they've been opposed.

The Dashwood women are reduced to living on £500 a year. This is a drastic change from Norland Park, which is assumed to be a substantially larger living. This would carry the Dashwood women from the gentry to the upper middle-class. A cottage is a realistic option for their new economic status, but is definitely a degradation from their former life.

http://web.stanford.edu/~steener/su02/english132/conversions.htm

“England was a very patriarchal society. Not only in the public sphere, but also in the private one as well. Women did not have any power in any portion of the nation, whether it be economic, political, or social. In England there was no law written expressly concerning inheritance other than, that the will or desire of the man of the home or estate will be carried out. This meaning that if the man of the estate wished for his nephew to inherit the land it was to be so. The common practice was that a son or nephew to the head of the family was to inherit all of the assets, because he would be more worthy of the property than a woman.” (Davis, Brooke. Inheritance Laws in the Early 1800s in England, Web)

“Before the nineteenth century, most families were organized according to patriarchal tradition. Household heads owned and controlled the means of production, and their wives and children were obliged to provide the unpaid labor needed to sustain family enterprises. Masters of the household had a legal right to command the obedience of their wives and children—as well as any servants or slaves—and to use corporal punishment to correct disobedience.“ (Ruggles, Steven. Patriarchy, Power, and Pay, Web)

Mr. Palmer is campaigning around the country for a seat in Parliament's House of Commons. Mr. Palmer is most likely campaigning for a seat as a representative for specific boroughs (Thorne, "IV. The Changing Face of the House and Political Parties," The History of Parliament: the House of Commons 1790-1820, (1986)).

Elizabeth Lanfear describes the repercussions of marriage and the commonality of how marriages occur: “marriage, generally speaking, in either sex, is more frequently the result of accident than of selection : propinquity, convenience, interest, or, at best, mere fancy, dignified by the name of love, forms the basis, of most matrimonial engagements” (Lanfear, Young Ladies on their Entrance into the World, p. 47). Lanfear's statement on marriage relates to this moment where Elinor notes her knowledge of this common type of marriage. In relation to Lanfear's statement, Elinor notices the infatuation between Mr. Palmer and his wife being the main attraction that led to their marriage.

In her conduct book published in 1824, Elizabeth Lanfear explains the etiquette expected from married women: “a sensible woman, to preserve the peace and secure the affections of her husband, will often sacrifice her own inclinations to his” (Lanfear, Young Ladies on their Entrance into the World, p. 67). Lanfear states that married woman are expected to sacrifice their tendencies and desires for those of her husbands. In regard to the relationship between Charlotte Palmer and her husband, this same etiquette is very strongly illustrated. In this particular moment, Charlotte is being selflessly tolerant to her husband's comments whether or not her husband's actions affect her.

"To superscribe (a letter, etc.) with a signature, so as to ensure its being sent without charge" (OED). According to The History of the British Post Office, franking was a privilege that allowed sending letters without being charged. However, over time, this privilege was highly abused and ultimately by 1840 this privilege was finally abolished. Franking free letters for others not in Parliament and for non Parliament purposes was so serious a Franking Department was created to inspect such letter (Hemmeon, The History of the British Post Office, p. 57).

A billiard room according to David Selwyn served as a key part of enjoyment towards entertaining guests, "large houses . . . were provided with a billiard room, which, though largely for the enjoyment of the men, could sometimes be an advantage to the ladies: Jane Austen commented that it drew 'all the Gentlemen to it whenever they are within, especially after dinner'" (Selwyn, Jane Austen and Leisure, p. 265). In this context, Austen is depicting the assumption that people with large houses who frequently entertain guests are expected to have a billiard room.

A gig is "a light two-wheeled one-horse carriage" (OED). Austen is saying these gigs are very fashionable and flashy. These carriages relate lawyers to the association of wealth. Aoife Byrne states that "gigs in Austen's works highlight their owner's social aspirations, and they illustrate contextual attitudes to those aspirations" (Byrne, "'Very Knowing Gigs': Social Aspiration and the Gig Carriage in Jane Austen's Works," Persuasions: The Jane Austen Journal, vol. 37 (2015)). . For the lawyers that "drove about" in these carriages, Austen is suggesting the connection of carriages relating lawyers to wealth and fashion.

In other words, "who were lawyers." Edward's referencing the barrister's chambers in the Temple, an area of London.

An example of an early 19th century cottage, this one being the birthplace of author Thomas Hardy

A 1799 income tax put a particular strain on the middle and upper classes at this time. For Edward, being idly rich could also be beneficial. His options for rewarding work are few.

The typical engagement period in early nineteenth-century England is about 6 months to 2 years.

A common way in early nineteenth-century England to exchange sentiments. Also used in the mourning of a loved one.

Portrait miniatures were often given between lovers as a symbol of love or affection, especially if the loved one was absent for long periods of time. (1450 to 1789: Encyclopedia of the Early Modern World, Web)

Approbation means the "action of expressing oneself pleased or satisfied with anything; or the mere feeling of such satisfaction; approval expressed or entertained" (OED).

According to the customs of the time, parents were to be consulted about a marriage and their opinion to be taken in high regard; however, men and women were mostly free to choose their marriage partner. If a young adult did choose someone who their parents disliked, they might be left out of the will or, if they are underaged, they may have permission withheld from them. Parental opinions were often respected by young people. ( Elizabeth Maurer, "Courtship and Marriage in the Eighteenth Century", Web.)

Some girls born into affluent families may have been educated at home by parents, a live in governess, tutor, or may have gone off to a private boarding school. Since women did not go on to have careers in this day, education and knowledge was something reserved primarily for boys.

Domestic trainings were a more appropriate education for a woman to receive. "For women of the 'genteel' classes the goal of non-domestic education was thus often the acquisition of 'accomplishments,' such as the ability to draw, sing, play music, or speak modern (i.e. non-Classical) languages (generally French and Italian)" (The Republic of Pemberley, "Education, Women's Education, and Accomplishments")

This is apparently not so certain now. There have definitely been some independent syllabaries and the like, and it's possible that there were more independent proto-alphabets at the time.

William Cowper, (born November 26, 1731, Great Berkhamstead, Hertfordshire, England—died April 25, 1800, East Dereham, Norfolk), one of the most widely read English poets of his day."(https://www.britannica.com/biography/William-Cowper). "Marianne, in Sense and Sensibility, complains about the way Edward Ferrars reads Cowper aloud...Cowper's mediative poetry celebrated the beauty of nature. He is often considered an early Romantic poet, and as such would particularly appeal to Marianne"(Patrice Hannon, 101 Things You Didn't Know About Jane Austen: The Truth About the World's Most Intriguing Romantic Literary Heroine, p. 96).

At Norland, the Dashwoods had well over a dozen servants, but, on an income of only £500, they can only maintain three at Barton cottage. The annual cost for a domestic servant ranged from £12-20. This would mean that Elinor, Marianne, and Margaret would have to help with the housework, where at Norland Park they would never be expected to. This is a significant mark of their altered status and quality of living. http://web.stanford.edu/~steener/su02/english132/conversions.htm

“The choice of a spouse was not solely left up to the suitors. Parents and even the wider community had an interest in securing suitable matches, between men and women of similar status, wealth, and age, and they exerted pressure accordingly“ ( Robert B. Shoemaker, Gender in English Society 1650-1850: The Emergence of Separate Spheres, p. 93 )

Example of how gossip plays a big role in society. Gossip is how information goes around and status can go up and down.

This was also custom and simple manners when attending a party. It is offensive if this action was dismissed. It is a way of introducing oneself to the host/hostess and showing gratitude for the invitation.

During this time, the purpose of this was just so that your presence was known and acknowledged. This is custom.

This draws me back to an annotation I made all the way back to Vico about the history of Rhetoric and its connection to autocratic states. Under the Aristotelian model, that doesn't make sense (though Kathryn's response opens up the door for a pressure-valve of rabble rousing).

A second parchment copy of the Declaration of Independence was discovered in a records office in Chichester, UK.

RE: "Nature itself" having a history

Nathaniel's in-class comments last week were very helpful to hear prior to the readings this week. It is particularly helpful to consider the paradox that some folks want to protect the Earth from humans and somehow return it to a point "before humans," as though the Earth exists outside of humans and we are pure agents acting upon it. (Which is where we get things like this video that has been going around Facebook because of Earth Day:) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=49w7GHVYoI0

This video pretends the Earth is an agent, but it actually only reflecting human actions back on humans. There is an underlying argument that our relationship to the planet is only the things we do to it and not all the other relationships and existences on and in it.

This part of the article stands out to me for a number of reasons. First, the idea that people with physical and mental disabilities prior to the nineteenth century suffered in a difference sense compared to what they deal with now. Prior to this point, this introduction points out the stereotypes that people with disabilities had in the eighteenth century. Though this is something that is still socially dealt with now, we've taken further measures to help people who deal with specific setbacks that emphasis the overall point on maximizing "the importance of personal agency," and minimizing social change. Overall, this article interests me because it allows me to think deeper about how disabilities have always existed, though they've been handles in a variety of different ways as well as reflect it to how it's handled regarding circumstances we've learned including the role of the doctor and what they can do to help and the resources we had access to then versus now.

The work of preserving elderly knowledge in indigenous communities has been undertaken in real life in Siberia, following the collapse of the Soviet Union. The details of the work involve a recounting of the Soviet experiences, as well as a monitoring of the adjustment success for the studied indigenous community in the post-Soviet era. The fascinating details of this study can be found below:

Susan A. Crate. “Elder Knowledge and Sustainable Livelihoods in Post-Soviet Russia: Finding Dialogue across the Generations.” Arctic Anthropology 43, no. 1 (2006): 40-51. https://muse.jhu.edu/ (accessed March 26, 2017).

Perhaps the most extensive historical account of the Russian conquest and annexation of the Siberian region can be found in Benson Bobrick’s East of the Sun: The Epic Conquest and Tragic History of Siberia. Within it, a thorough account is given on the 400 year history of the region’s interactions with the Russian empire. For more context and information on any time within this period, refer to this piece as the central hallmark for Siberian history.

Benson Bobrick, East of the Sun: The Epic Conquest and Tragic History of Siberia (New York: Poseidon Press, 1992).

The frontier has for a long time been an essential part of the identity of North America. In the United States, after the French and Indian Wars, people rapidly began to move out West on the "frontier" to create better lives for themselves. They saw the frontier as a land of great opportunity. Especially in America, there was so much fertile land that people would be able to move out westward and own massive areas of land to start agriculture on. But the frontier has also had many different motifs in the development of North America. The frontier was a very difficult place to live. Before the French and Indian Wars, white people on the frontier would constantly be harassed or even killed by Native Americans protecting their land. The frontier was also miles away from any substantial civilization so families were pretty much all on their own out there. It was seen as an area of grit and masculinity. Historian Frederick Jackson Turner talks about how the frontier was crucial to the development of American culture. He says that, "this perennial rebirth, this fluidity of American life, this expansion westward with its new opportunities, its continuous touch with the simplicity of primitive society, furnish the forces dominating American character." While here I focus on the expansion westward, the "frontier" extended both northward and southward. When people began to move to westward and northward into Canada, it had already been done before in America. This led to pre-legislation and treaties with the indigenous people that allowed for easier transitions and avoid creating another "Wild West".

Turner, Frederick Jackson. The frontier in American history. New York, NY: Henry Holt and Company, 1935.

Yellowstone National Park is a large land reserve in the American west that extends into Wyoming, Idaho, and Montana. Yellowstone is very well known for its incredible geology and wildlife. Yellowstone National Park is built on top of a ancient super volcano that causes interesting geological phenomena like geysers and hot springs. Furthermore, Yellowstone has very diverse wildlife that ranges from wolves to American bison to elk populations. Yellowstone was the first ever National Park in the world as it was established in 1872 by President Ulysses S. Grant. The original initiative for national parks came from the idea for people to leave areas of great natural beauty to be left alone and enjoyed by everyone. Though the first national park, the development of Yellowstone stared a theme of conservation and preservation that spread throughout the country. Even to this day, Yellowstone stands as a prime example of environmental preservation because of their ever expanding American Bison population as well as wolf populations. This can be seen even as early as last year as the Obama administration placed a ban on mining in an area near Yellowstone saying, "Today's action helps ensure that Yellowstone's watershed, wildlife and the tourism-based economy of local communities will not be threatened by the impact of mineral development."

Dennis, Brady. "Obama administration moves to block mining near Yellowstone." Washington Post, November 21, 2016. Global Reference on the Environment, Energy, and Natural Resources (accessed April 10, 2017). http://find.galegroup.com/grnr/infomark.do?&source=gale&idigest=6f8f4a3faafd67e66fa023866730b0a1&prodId=GRNR&userGroupName=bucknell_it&tabID=T004&docId=CJ470939393&type=retrieve&PDFRange=%5B%5D&contentSet=IAC-Documents&version=1.0

The dust bowl is a geographic region in the United States centralized in the panhandle of Oklahoma and northern part of Texas that extends to surrounding states like Kansas and New Mexico. The dust bowl is infamous for experiencing a severe drought for almost a decade in the 1930's. In addition to the drought, decades of poor farming practices led the top soil to be overused and low in nutrients. Because of these compounding problems, crops were not able to be grown in this region which forced tens of thousands of farming families to move away. The drought in the dust bowl could not have come at a worse time as it occurred during the Great Depression. With an already struggling economy, food supplies were severely reduced nationwide leading to even more struggle. "This convergence of geophysical and anthropogenic factors conspired to create what is arguably the most severe long-term human ecological crisis the USA has seen.” An iconic part of the dust bowl were the intense dust storms that were experienced because of the loose top soil and high power winds. These storms were know as black blizzards as they covered the sky in dust and blackened everything. These dust storms reached all the way to areas of the East coast.

Porter, Jess. 2014. "What was the Dust Bowl? Assessing contemporary popular knowledge." Population & Environment 35, no. 4: 391-416. GreenFILE, EBSCOhost (accessed April 10, 2017).

In this sentence, Berger refers to how transport and industrial activity expanded heavily over this time period when many Americans were moving out west. This is a massive part of North American history because of the opportunities it opened up for rich and poor people alike. The first railroads in North America were established in the 1820's and quickly altered the face of life on the continent. The rapid expansion of the railroad industry led to the development of other industries like oil and steel. For a time in the 19th century these were the largest economic factors in the United States and whoever controlled these essentially controlled the country. However, Berger here is referring to the opportunities that railroads opened up for expansion across the west and north. The incredible development of railroads made travel to the west coast of America much easier than it ever was before. This changed the idea of the "frontier" in many people's mind. Because travel was much easier, the idea of the west in North America being a rustic and dangerous environment changed overtime and culminated in western economic opportunities like the Gold Rush. "Gold discoveries in the Far West preceded the gold rush of 1849 and encouraged migration from eastern cities." As western movement became more and more popular, the idea of a pristine, wild, and natural American west began to fade. The idea of a getting rich quick from the California Gold Rush was translated to the Klondike Gold Rush in the Yukon of Canada in 1896. This had similar affects on how people viewed the Northwest region of Canada and its wilderness.

"Railroad Promotion and Economic Expansion at Council Bluffs, Iowa, 1857-1869." Annals Of Iowa 42, no. 5 (Summer1974 1974): 371-389. America: History and Life with Full Text, EBSCOhost (accessed April 6, 2017).

pp. 31-32 problems with listserves relative to usenet groups

• more intense (sent messages)
• more user resources (in box full).

p. 28 history of LISTSERV

p. 26 USENET is where newsfeeds came from

pp. 24-25 history of bitnet

pp. 6-7 Interesting history of Journal

Scholars have always had a need to communicate with other scholars. More than three hundred years ago, using the then new technology of the printing press, scholarly journals began. Journals were an exceptionally practical solution to the problem of the limited technolgogies of the time. ... For an individual before the seventeenth century the only practical form of communicating over significant distances was the personal letter. In comparison, scholarly journals allowed an individual to communicate more easily and exchange ideas with groups of others. These early journals were not seen as the final destination of a scholar's work; until this century, the monograph (book) was usually the final destination of a scholar's work. I find this distinction important because when a scholar today commits to be published in a journal, the product is usually considered finished and the scholar commits her or himself to the finality of the work. The journal article becomes the final piece offered to the public and to the fate of history.

The narrator often switches between the minds of Elinor, and that of Marianne's. The usage of "mama" gives readers a clear knowledge of whose mind we are in - in this case, we are in the younger character (Marianne's) mind. Elinor, the older character, typically refers to her mother as Mrs. Dashwood; much more maturely. This shows the way that ladies carried themselves in this time.

On plantations slaves were often not allowed to practice religion or anything of their choice because they were not looked at a people. They had to find other ways to do this, so instead of having things like churches or massing they usually told stories that passed down from person to person

Humanist claimed as one of the earliest uses of Listserv for nonscience scholarly work

Gaius Marius is a famous Roman general turned statesman who is considered to be “The Third Founder of Rome” for his infamous restructuring of the Roman armies to include the common Romans (known as the “Marian Reforms” that lifted the strict enlistment restrictions based around land ownership) and a long list of other populist reforms. Before his rise to fame and power, he served under the family of the Scipii, stationed with a massive army led by Scipio Africanus that would go to conquer the Carthaginians by sacking their capitol, Carthage. Though Marius would see Carthage in ruin as a common soldier, this is not what is being referenced by Melville. Marius would climb the political ladder over the years in order to achieve such fame, but his populist view alienated him from the other jealous (and wealthy) politicians, and he would see many of his reforms dismantled. A civil war broke out, and though Marius tried his best to defend Rome, he was forced to flee or he would face death at the hands of his opposition. This is when Marius would return to the ruins of Carthage. However, this time he was disillusioned, and was often found “brooding” by his few supporters assisting him in this form of exile to keep hidden from those who would see him killed. Bartleby finds himself in a similar situation; a grim form of imprisonment born of ideals, that stood for the greater good, only to be tested in contemplation by the jailer that is the opposition.

This is fascinating! What an excellent articulation of the self. I'm willing to bet that I'm going to be using the "embodiment" tag a fair number of times in this text, and this is a great place to start.

Here, Cixous is already recognizing that her "self" is at least partly a racially, historically, and politically situated body. Simply by being the rhetor she is, she is actively "doing" French history by participating in the public sphere. It may not have been as dangerous for her as it was for Douglass or Palmer or Stewart, but much of what she had to say was still revolutionary, and her body is an important part of that revolutionary performance.

A "static" image / mural that reflects a continuum and a continuum. Paradoxically beautiful.

Very important DH work being done on Red Lining by LaDale Winling at Virginia Tech and others: (http://news.nationalgeographic.com/2016/10/housing-discrimination-redlining-maps/) Robert K. Nelson, LaDale Winling, Richard Marciano, Nathan Connolly, et al., “Mapping Inequality,” American Panorama, ed. Robert K. Nelson and Edward L. Ayers, accessed March 7, 2017, https://dsl.richmond.edu/panorama/redlining/#loc=12/37.2720/-79.9750&opacity=0.8&city=roanoke-va. (https://dsl.richmond.edu/panorama/redlining/#loc=4/36.71/-96.93&opacity=0.8)

the three things that promoted this revolution were the European enlightenment, traditional British legal and political views, and the American experience. All these things promoted a higher level of thinking or thinking differently, all of those things made people question those in power and with the different religious viewpoints created even more tension.

We've had some discussions over when does Feminism start/proto-Feminism end, and it reminds me of Mary Wollstonecraft, who's generally considered to be the last woman to found feminism with her book Maria: The Wrongs of Women at the end of the 18th Century. The central focus of the book is a woman's legal non-entity and how a man's wantonness can abuse that. The history of the legal construction of a woman is something that should not be overlooked here.

An example of how great rhetoric can shift human history. It's crazy to consider what the U. S. could've looked like had there been a mass exodus of African-American people as Lincoln originally advocated for...

There's a great drunk history video about this, but for some reason I can't link or embed it.

Newsweek Article: Playing Telephone with the Word of God

I think this article nicely complicates the concept of "the truthfulness of testimony about the life and teachings of Jesus" in that it suggests that no *true" witness assertions about Jesus that could constitute a historical record actually exist: "No television preacher has ever read the Bible. Neither has any evangelical politician. Neither has the pope. Neither have I. And neither have you. At best, we’ve all read a bad translation—a translation of translations of translations of hand-copied copies of copies of copies of copies, and on and on, hundreds of times."

I made an earlier note on this, but it really can't be understated how important the Temperance Movement was in the triad of women's movements in 19th Century America. I feel it's overlooked because, unlike slavery and women voting, it's an issue that failed, and we generally support its failure today, but it still had an important role in organizing women in the 19th and early 20th century. Plus, Carrie Nation is one hell of a historical woman that is unfortunately too often overlooked.

The etymology of "rhetoric" that Whateley is referencing: early 14th century, from Old French rethorique, from Latin rhetorice, from Greek rhetorike techne "art of an orator," from rhetor (genitive rhetoros) "speaker, orator, teacher of rhetoric," related to rhesis "speech," rhema "word, phrase, verb," meaning literally: that which is spoken.

Again, one of these words that fits in with the "black box terminology" category. Though Campbell believes that history is dignified by "knowledge," the reality is that what we (I suppose both individually and collectively) "know"about history is completely dependent on who we are, where we are, and when. In fact, understanding history requires as much conjecture, if not more, than trying to understand the future. While we may "know" supposedly objective facts (i.e. dates, names, places, etc.), it's rather impossible to truly comprehend or empathize with the motivations, opinions, interactions, and social/cultural/political/economic mechanisms that drove individuals, groups, and the course of history. And so it would seem that hindsight is anything but 20/20.

I appreciate that Campbell values the relationship between logic and passion and that both are necessary to ensure that rhetoric is successful. Again, he contrasts previous thinkers, such as the Stoics, who disregarded the importance of passion, and only viewed "passions" as a hindrance to human happiness.

This is a little misleading, or is, at least, a very limited view of history. I mean, I understand that he's trying to make a broad claim to emphasize the importance of testimony, but although we certainly have a lot of narratives about individuals, history is mostly dictated by what we as a group (that is, not individuals creating their own testimonies) choose to preserve or erase/ignore.

Yes! In general these disciplines have long been structured around the perception that scholarship is pursued largely in solitude. It isn't really so, of course, but I love the potential of projects like this one to foreground and support collaboration and networking.

So much potential here for transforming (overcoming) the distinctions between a repository, a tool, and an ongoing project.

Really think upon this: if knowledge is in some sense contextual and historical, think of what we do not know. That is, imagine that there is an inaccessible library somewhere filling up in equal measure and at the same rate as the library we can access.

The famous Trinity College library is the permanent home of the Book of Kells, It's also where Jack Gleason attended university after finishing his run on Game of Thrones.

An important historical note here: most of the Die Brücke artists and their later avant-garde peers who fell under the various "-isms" such as Fauvism, Expressionism, Cubism, etc. were eventually persecuted by the Nazis, who believed the kind of art work seen above (Emil Nolde, Masks, 1911) to be "degenerate," which I think fits well into the dialogue about the "normalcy" of the body in creating socio-political standards. Artists such as Braque, Beckmann, Chagall, Dix, Grosz, Kandinsky, Klee, Matisse, Munch, and Picasso were all considered degenerate by the racially-obsessed Nazis because of the way they depicted the composition of the human body. Hitler looked to classical models, specifically Greek and Roman traditions, as examples toward which the German Volk should strive, because their ideal exterior forms embodied the inner Nazi idea of racial superiority, or normalcy. Modernists celebrated subjective and unique perspectives of reality (including, and especially the body), which, unfortunately for them, did not fit into the promotion of a singularly molded and racially uniform German state.

But how does the climate of life at the time influence the readers' perceptions of Homer? Surely what they found important during the time of the Romans could be the same, but the application to their own lives would differ because of different customs and ways of life.

I remember David Crystal having quite a bit to say about 18th-19th Century standardization of pronunciation, particularly Sheridan (he does not like him). He emphasizes how big a deal Sheridan's lectures were (estimates he brought in £150k in 2004 dollars [Stories of English 406]), and how he influenced John Walker, the guy who codified Received Pronunciation. Pretty much the father of prescriptivism for elocution, which means you definitely already have opinions on him.

This line of thinking seems like it'd have a lot of resonance with things like Chomsky's notion of Universal Grammar, but Sheridan's argument that this language needs to be refined through educating the nobler faculties would also have some interesting historical opposition. This is contemporary with Rousseau's Emile, which is basically the opposite of this.

Does the American educational system erase groups of people to ignore the history and pain from those people?

This is something that interested me in Kennedy's history of Renaissance rhetoric--with rare exception, it's practiced under autocratic princes. Vico's later in history, but Italy hasn't been unified yet, and Vico served the King of Naples. The paragraph goes on to explain how legal rhetoric helped turn a system to enforce aristocratic privilege into something more equitable, so there's the obvious question: why would the rich and unquestionably powerful allow this?

I find myself continuously drawn to the points of how rhetoric influenced modern society in its development into what it is today. How can something so influential and essential to how we exist now be so misunderstood by the majority of present-day citizens? It's kind of funny to think about.

How different would our definition(s) of rhetoric be if we viewed it through the lens of another ancient civilization? I think what this article (and many of the articles which we have read) is saying that in order to gain a broader and deeper understanding of rhetoric, we must view it from the perspective of multiple cultural interpretations.

Thomas Edison. Love his quotes

Reception of the Mother of All Demos

Jimi Hendrix radio documentary (4 hours)<br> https://soundcloud.com/openculture/sets/jimi-hendrix-radio-documentary

How times have changed! Project Euler suggested run times of less than a minute, but here the author blithely suggests that waiting an hour for your solution may be too much.

"Banquet speech by Bob Dylan given by the United States Ambassador to Sweden Azita Raji, at the Nobel Banquet, 10 December 2016."

I don't understand why it was so awful for women to be considered masculine.

What started the belief that women are inferior to men?

This entire movement started at Seneca Falls, in New York during 1848.

This article does a good job of showing how hard women worked to be able vote before the entire U.S. allowed it in 1920.

The Bastille was original for defense but was converted into a prison

Color stock had not yet entered the mass market for short, news segments like this.

True Confessions: I've never read Myrdal even though his work was of great influence. These days, I read people who cite him. For example, Roberts and Klibanoff start Chapter 1 of their great 2006 book, The Race Beat, immediately talking about Myrdal in depth. Sampler is here at Amazon:

The Race Beat

When I need insight into Myrdal, I know where to go first, thanks to this book.

As shown in an example earlier, in which Holmes references a book for descriptions of various nationalities, this quote is another example of Doyle giving an idea of the diversity in London at this time. As also explained in the article I have attached, while many different nationalities had migrated to London at this time very few were of different appearance.

Use the below sources: video, website, and essay to gather information on both of the Emancipation Proclamations. Once you have gathered information, read through each document once and then go back and annotate one part of each document. You should have two annotations when complete.

Questions that can be answered with annotations:

●Which Republican goals were served by each paragraph?

● Why is the president authorized to do this?

● What should the President have replied to critics who warned him that this document would 1) anger the border states or southern unionists, and 2) undermine prosecution of the war?

●What differences are there in the two documents?

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=05GVVw7008M&list=PLVggCKD8PzewikRabpcuKeW7ENokjpx-W&index=19

Emancipation Proclamation 1863 (http://housedivided.dickinson.edu/)

Emancipation Essay

Page 13

Paul Otlet's bibliographic networks of the 1930s were a precursor to hypertext.

See Rayward 1991 1994 Wayward & Buckland 1992

p. 141

Initially, the digital humanities consisted of the curation and analysis of data that were born digital, and the digitisation and archiving projects that sought to render analogue texts and material objects into digital forms that could be organised and searched and be subjects to basic forms of overarching, automated or guided analysis, such as summary visualisations of content or connections between documents, people or places. Subsequently, its advocates have argued that the field has evolved to provide more sophisticated tools for handling, searching, linking, sharing and analysing data that seek to complement and augment existing humanities methods, and facilitate traditional forms of interpretation and theory building, rather than replacing traditional methods or providing an empiricist or positivistic approach to humanities scholarship.

summary of history of digital humanities

History of OA journals. Initially scholar-published, non-APC, post 2003 mostly APC-publisher-led journals

Wary of committing treason, Parliament tasked Essex with "preserving the Safety of his Majesty's Person" - which, ironically, entailed Essex engaging Charles I's forces in battle, supposedly for the king's own good.

Robert Devereux, Earl of Essex, was appointed Captain-General of the Parliamentary army to fight the royalists.

A prophet from the Book of Judges in the Hebrew Bible, generally associated with military prowess due to his defeat of the Midianite army.

Royalist forces were defeated by Parliamentary forces in the 1644 Siege of York, at the Battle of Marston Moor.

The Commons' motion to appoint militia commanders independently of the king met with resistance from Charles I.

The Commons drew up the Militia Ordinance of 1642 to quell the Irish uprising.

A play on words: Archbishop William Laud was imprisoned in the Tower before being executed for treason.

The House of Commons drew up a bill of attainder declaring Thomas Wentworth, Earl of Strafford, guilty of treason. After the bill was signed by Charles I, Strafford was beheaded - very literally brought low "by the head"!

The House of Commons also volubly opposed Catholic practices in England before and during the Civil War.

Probably referring to the House of Commons, which drafted the Petition of Right, a document that prohibited the king from infringing on specific liberties.

English Protestants were massacred in the Irish rebellion of 1641, a slaughter documented in John Temple's The Irish Rebellion (1646).

The Catholic Louis XIII of France laid siege to Rochelle in 1627-1628, defeating the Protestant Huguenot forces.

Referring to the defeat of German Protestants by Catholic forces during the Thirty Years War, contemporary with the English Civil War.

Lady Jane Grey ruled England for nine days before she was overthrown and executed by the notoriously Catholic Mary Tudor in 1554, at age nineteen. Known as the Nine Days Queen, she is the shortest reigning monarch in English history.

Referring again to Richard III's alleged murder of his nephews.

Referring to the execution of Charles I on January 30, 1649.

Probably referring to the supposed plots of Mary, Queen of Scots, to overthrow Elizabeth I.

Presumably referring to the women that married these two English kings: Edward III married Philippa of Hainault, granddaughter of Philip III of France. When Edward laid siege to Calais during the Hundred Years' War, Philippa petitioned him not to execute the conquered Frenchmen. Henry V married Catherine of Valois after his victory over France at the Battle of Agincourt.

Recalling the 1588 defeat of the Spanish Armada

A white rose was the emblem of the House of York.

A red rose was the emblem of the House of Lancaster.

In 1403, Sir Edward Mortimer, the Welsh general Owain Glyndwr, and Henry Percy rebelled against Henry IV in the hopes of putting Mortimer's nephew, also Edward Mortimer, 3rd Earl of March, on the throne.

A misprint for "Lewis," referring to Louis VIII of France, who lent the English barons military aid during the First Barons' War.

Edward III asserted dominion over France and initiated the Siege of Calais (1337-1453), early during the Hundred Years' War.

Henry V defeated the French at the 1415 Battle of Agincourt, an encounter famously dramatized in Shakespeare's "Henry V."

Lancaster and York united with the marriage of Henry VII to Elizabeth of York.

Richard III allegedly killed his nephews, twelve-year old Edward V and nine-year old Richard of Shrewsbury, to ensure his claim to the throne. Shakespeare dramatizes the murder in his play, Richard III (IV.iii).

Alluding to Richard of York, who attempted to seize the throne from Henry VI and Margaret of Anjou. He was the father of Edward IV and Richard III.

Richard II

Edward II

Empress Matilda

Stephen of Blois

After Holland rebelled against Spanish rule, Elizabeth I of England sent Robert Dudley, the Earl of Leicester, to be governor-general of the Netherlands. He resigned within a year due to political tensions.

Since Mary, Queen of Scots, had been married to the French King Francis II, France supported her claims to the English throne instead of Elizabeth I.

The Spanish Armada's 1588 naval attack on England under Philip II ended in defeat, when a storm ravaged the heavy Spanish galleons.

The white boar was the personal device of Richard III.

King Henry VII, formerly the Earl of Richmond, defeated Richard III at the Battle of Bosworth Field (1485), ending the Wars of the Roses.

The houses of Lancaster and York contended for the English crown during the 15th century Wars of the Roses, which ended with the marriage of the Lancastrian Henry VII to Elizabeth of York.

Richard II was deposed by Henry Bolingbroke, later Henry IV, and imprisoned in the Tower of London before he was moved to Pontefract Castle.

She alludes to Edward II, who was deposed in 1327 by his wife, Isabella, and son, Edward III.

The English barons famously rose up against King John during the First Barons' War (1215-1217), with military support from France.

Empress Matilda, the daughter of Henry I of England, contended with her cousin, Stephen of Blois, for the English throne in the 12th century. The war ended in stalemate, with Maud and Stephen controlling different parts of England.

She alludes to William the Great's conquest of England at the Battle of Hastings in 1066 AD.

An 11th century king of Denmark and Norway, who invaded and conquered England in 1016, finally succeeding Edward II as king.

An Anglo-Saxon mercenary, who massacred the Britons at a peace conference in the 5th century in an incident called the Treachery of the Long Knives. Vortigern, the king of the Britons, ceded half of his kingdom to Hengist.

Paradoxically, even as the war has politically curative properties, its violence threatens to destroy England.

The metaphor likens the Civil War to a medicinal concoction meant to rid the body (England) of disease-causing humors - or, in this case, of Charles I.

A postcolonial Internet, yes. Especially if we revisit the current one’s history. But the piece is mostly about postcolonial MOOCs and that’s much more specific.

The Spanish Inquisition (the one we usually think of!) was actually just one of a series of Catholic inquisitions in Europe, beginning with the Inquisition in the south of France by Pope Lucius III at the end of the 12th century.

These would have been carried to prevent scurvy, which sailors often died from due to vitamin C deficiency. In the 16th century, Admiral Sir Richard Hawkins became the first to prevent scurvy among his crew by giving them citrus fruits to eat.

Spain's New World land holdings, spanning modern-day Mexico, the southwestern United States, and northern regions of South America

So this is why Heath's ethnography is a cornerstone of ethnographies of communication.

History/background for why Heath's study is a foundational cornerstone of ethnographies of communication.

The idiom "Man Friday" or "Girl Friday" still refers to an especially faithful servant or personal assistant. It came into use with the release of the film "His Girl Friday" (1940), whose title alludes to Defoe's novel.

Moidores (archaic), a unit of Portuguese currency.

Reals, another unit of Spanish currency (not to be confused with Iranian rials)

Spanish coin

In the 16th, 17th and 18th centuries, Spain grew wealthy on imports of gold, silver, and sugar from its Latin American colonies, eventually causing enormous inflation throughout Western Europe. Buenos Aires exported silver to Spain.

A loop attached to a belt, designed to hold a sword or bayonet

To have a pardon granted a moment before execution. (A criminal sentenced to hanging would have stood on a ladder with the noose around his neck, and the executioner would kick the ladder out from beneath his feet in order to hang him.)

Solomon, King of Israel and Judah, was said to have built a great temple to Yahweh, which housed the Ark of the Covenant and was destroyed by Nebuchadnezzar II during the Siege of Jerusalem (587 B.C.)

A small, flat-bottomed Caribbean boat similar to a canoe, but with a sail.

Colonisation of Milton by the Spenser society. Anxiety of Influence among scholarly societies.

At the same time scientific authorship was becoming anonymous, literary authorship was no longer accepted as anonymous (this is something Chartier disagrees with emphatically)

bibliography tying rate of coauthorship to professionalisation of science