The Romans valued what we now call technology more highly than the Greeks. In De Natura Deorum Cicero praised the human ability to transform the environment and create a "second nature." Other Roman poets praised the construction of roads and the pleasures of a well-built villa. Statius devoted an entire poem to praising technological progress, and Pliny authored prose works with a similar theme '9Saint Augustine synthesized Plato and Aristotle with Cicero's appreciation of skilled labor: ". .. there have been discovered and perfected, by the natural genius of man, innumerable arts and skills which minister not only to the necessities of life but also to human enjoyment. And even in those arts where the purposes may seem superfluous, perilous and pernicious, there is exercised an acuteness of intelligence of so high an order that it reveals how richly endowed our human nature is." In contrast, Thomas Aquinas characterized the mechanical arts as merely servilen Some medieval thinkers, notably Albertus Magnus, appreciated iron smelting, the construction of drainage ditches, and the new plowing techniques that minimized erosion. A few drew upon Arabic thought, which presented the crafts as practical science and applied mathematics. Roger Bacon, in his Communia Mathematica, imagined flying machines, self-propelled vehicles, submarines, and other conquests of nature. Bacon put so much emphasis on the practical advantages of experiment and construction of useful objects that he "came close to reversing the usual hierarchy of the speculative and useful in medieval thought.

r. Families may show signs and degrees of each type; this may vary at any given point, depending on factors such as age of the children, economic circum- stances, and the family's stage of development (for ex- ample, first-time parents versus a family with several children

“I wanted them to see and be aware of all of the options and the control that they are giving up when services such as Facebook are their primary web presence,” he said.

dedicate a portion of it, as a final resting place for those who died here, that the nation might live. This we may, in all propriety do.

LikeFish Is Fish, everything the children heard was incorporated into that pre-existing view.

, she illustrated the potential evils of scientific hubris and at the same time challenged any conception of science and the scientific method that rested on a gendered definition of nature as female. Fully to appreciate the {{90}} significance of Mary Shelley's feminist critique of modern science, {288} we must look first at the particular scientific research upon which her novel is based. I The works of three of the most famous scientists of the late eighteenth and early nineteenth century -- Humphry Davy, Erasmus Darwin, and Luigi Galvani -- together with the teachings of two of their ardent disciples, Adam Walker and Percy Shelley, were crucial to Mary Shelley's understanding of science and the scientific enterprise. While no scientist herself (her description of Victor Frankenstein's laboratory is both vague and naive; apparently Victor does all his experiments in a small attic room by the light of a single candle), Mary Shelley nonetheless had a sound grasp of the concepts and implications of some of the most important scientific work of her day. In her novel, she distinguishes between those scientific researches which attempt to describe accurately the functionings of the physical universe and those which attempt to control or change that universe through human intervention. Implicitly, she celebrates the former, which she associates most closely with the work of Erasmus Darwin, while she calls attention to the dangers inherent in the latter, found in the work of Davy, Galvani, and Walker. Victor Frankenstein chooses to work within the newly established field of chemical physiology; thus, he must be familiar with recent experiments in the disparate fields of biology, chemistry, mechanics, physics, and medicine. M. Waldman, Victor's chemistry professor at the University of Ingolstadt, observes that "a man would make but a very sorry chemist, if he attended to that department of human knowledge alone," and therefore advises Victor "to apply to every branch of natural philosophy, including mathematics."2 {{91}} Victor and Professor Waldman's concept of the nature and utility of chemistry is based upon Humphry Davy's famous introductory lecture to a course in chemistry given at the newly founded Royal Institution on 21 January 1802.3 Immediately published as A Discourse, Introductory to a Course of Lectures on Chemistry, this pamphlet is probably the work that Mary Shelley read on Monday, 28 October 1816, just before working on her story of Frankenstein.4 Waldman's enthusiasm for and description {289} of the benefits to be derived from the study of chemistry seem to be derived from Davy's remarks, as does Victor Frankenstein's belief that chemistry might discover the secret of life itself. Davy probably also supplied Mary Shelley's description of the first parts of Professor Waldman's introductory lecture on chemistry -- the opening "recapitulation of the history of chemistry and the various improvements made by different men of learning," followed by "a cursory view of the present state of the sciences," an explanation of several key terms and a few preparatory experiments (F, p. 42) -- which come not so much from Davy's Discourse as from his later textbook, Elements of Chemical Philosophy (London, 1812), which Percy Shelley ordered from Thomas Hookham on 29 July 1812.5 This may be the book listed in Mary's Journal on 29, 30 October, 2 and 4 November 18l6, where Mary notes that she "read Davy's 'Chemistry' with {{92}} Shelley" and then alone. A glance at the table of contents of this book would have given Mary Shelley the outline she attributes to Waldman: a brief history, followed by a discussion of several specific elements and compounds, with descriptions of experiments performed. The contents probably also provided her with the description of the lectures on natural philosophy that Victor Frankenstein attended in Geneva: Some accident prevented my attending these lectures until the course was nearly finished. The lecture being therefore one of the last was entirely incomprehensible to me. The professor discoursed with the greatest fluency of potassium and boron, of sulphates and oxyds, terms to which I could affix no idea. (F, p. 36) Davy's Discourse, written to attract and keep a large audience, provided Mary Shelley with both the content and the rhetoric of Waldman's final panegyric on modern chemistry, which directly inspired Victor Frankenstein's subsequent research. Waldman concludes, The ancient teachers of this science . . . promised impossibilities, and performed nothing. The modern masters promise very little; they know that metals cannot be transmuted, and that the elixir of life is a chimera. But these philosophers, whose hands seem only made to dabble in dirt, and their eyes to pore over the microscope or crucible, have indeed performed miracles. They penetrate into the recesses of nature, and shew how she works in her hiding places. They ascend into the heavens; {290} they have discovered how the blood circulates, and the nature of the air we breathe. They have acquired new and almost unlimited powers; they can command the thunders of heaven, mimic the earthquake, and even mock the invisible world with its own shadows. (F, p. 42) Davy, in his celebration of the powers of chemistry, asserted that "the phenomena of combustion, of the solution of different substances in water, of the agencies of fire, the production of rain, hail, and snow, and the conversion of dead matter into living matter by vegetable organs, all belong to chemistry."6 Arguing that chemistry is the basis of many other sciences, including mechanics, natural history, mineralogy, astronomy, medicine, physiology, pharmacy, botany, and zoology, Davy insists, How dependent, in fact, upon chemical processes are the nourishment and growth of organized beings; their various alterations of form, their constant production of new substances; and, finally, their death and decomposition, in which nature seems to take unto herself those {{93}} elements and constituent principles which, for a while, she had lent to a superior agent as the organs and instruments of the spirit of life! (Discourse, no. 8) After detailing the necessity of chemical knowledge to all the operations of common life, including agriculture, metalworking, bleaching, dyeing, leather tanning, and glass and porcelain making, Davy paints an idealistic portrait of the contemporary chemist, who is informed by a science that has given to him an acquaintance with the different relations of the parts of the external world; and more than that, it has bestowed upon him powers which may be almost called creative; which have enabled him to modify and change the beings surrounding him, and by his experiments to interrogate nature with power, not simply as a scholar, passive and seeking only to understand her operations, but rather as a master, active with his own instruments. (Discourse no. 16) Davy then sketches an even more visionary picture of the scientist of the future, who will discover the still unknown general laws of chemistry, for who would not be ambitious of becoming acquainted with the most profound secrets of nature; of ascertaining her hidden operations; and of exhibiting to men that system of knowledge which relates so intimately to their own physical and moral constitution? (Discourse, no. 17) {291} These are Waldman's chemists, who "penetrate into the recesses of nature, and shew how she works in her hiding places." The result of such activity, Davy confidently predicts, will be a more harmonious, cooperative and healthy society. True, he cautions, "We do not look to distant ages, or amuse ourselves with brilliant, though delusive dreams, concerning the infinite improveability of man, the annihilation of labour, disease, and even death" (Discourse, no. 22). But even as Davy apparently disavows the very dream that would inspire Victor Frankenstein, he claims for his own project something very similar: "we reason by analogy from simple facts. We consider only a state of human progression arising out of its present condition. We look for a time that we may reasonably expect, for a bright day of which we already behold the dawn" (Discourse, no. 22). Having boldly stated the social benefits to be {{94}} derived from the pursuit of chemistry, Davy concludes by insisting on the personal gratifications to be gained: "it may destroy diseases of the imagination, owing to too deep a sensibility; and it may attach the affections to objects, permanent, important, and intimately related to the interests of the human species," even as it militates against the "influence of terms connected only with feeling" and encourages instead a rational contemplation of the universal order of things (Discourse, no. 26). In fairness to Davy, he was very skeptical about Victor Frankenstein's chosen field, the new field of chemical physiology. Commenting on just the kind of enterprise Frankenstein pursues, the search for the principle of life itself, Davy warns: if the connexion of chemistry with physiology has given rise to some visionary and seductive theories; yet even this circumstance has been useful to the public mind in exciting it by doubt, and in leading it to new investigations. A reproach, to a certain degree just, has been thrown upon those doctrines known by the name of the chemical physiology; for in the applications of them speculative philosophers have been guided rather by the analogies of words than of facts. Instead of slowly endeavouring to lift up the veil concealing the wonderful phenomena of living nature; full of ardent imaginations, they have vainly and presumptuously attempted to tear it asunder. (Discourse, no. 9) Mary Shelley clearly heeded Davy's words, for she presents Victor Frankenstein as the embodiment of hubris, of that Satanic or Faustian {292} presumption which blasphemously attempts to penetrate the sacred mysteries of the universe. But in contrast to Davy, Mary Shelley doubted whether chemistry itself -- insofar as it involved a "mastery" of nature -- produced only good. She substituted for Davy's complacent image of the happy scientist living in harmony with both his community and himself the frightening image of the alienated scientist working in feverish isolation, cut off both physically and emotionally from his family, friends, and society. Victor Frankenstein's scientific researches not only bring him no satisfaction; they also leave him, as Laura Crouch has observed, disgusted with the entire scientific enterprise.7 Detached from a respect for nature and from a strong sense of personal responsibility for the products of one's research, scientific experimentation and purely objective thought can and do produce monsters. Mary Shelley might have found trenchant support for her view in Humphrey Davy's praise for one of chemistry's most notable {{95}} achievements: "in leading to the discovery of gunpowder, [chemistry] has changed the institutions of society, and rendered war more independent of brutal strength, less personal, and less barbarous."8 In contrast to Davy, Erasmus Darwin provided Mary Shelley with a powerful image of what she considered "good" science, a careful observation and celebration of the operations of nature with no attempt radically to alter either the way nature works or the institutions of society. Percy Shelley acknowledged the impact of Erasmus Darwin's work on his wife's novel when he began the Preface to the 1818 edition of Frankenstein with the assertion that "the event on which this fiction is founded has been supposed, by Dr. Darwin, and some of the physiological writers of Germany, as not of impossible occurrence" (F, p. 1). To what specific suppositions, theories, and experiments, by Erasmus Darwin and others, did Percy Shelley allude? Mary Shelley, in her Preface to the 1831 edition, referred to an admittedly apocryphal account of one of Dr. Darwin's experiments. During one of Byron and Shelley's many long conversations to which she was "a devout but nearly silent listener," Mary Shelley recalled, various philosophical doctrines were discussed, and among others the nature of the principle of life, and whether there was any probability of its ever being discovered and communicated. They talked of the experi- {293} ments of Dr. Darwin (I speak not of what the doctor really did or said that he did, but, as more to my purpose, of what was then spoken of as having been done by him), who preserved a piece of vermicelli in a glass case till by some extraordinary means it began to move with voluntary motion. (F, p. 227) Even though Mary Shelley acknowledges that the animated piece of vermicelli is probably a fiction, Erasmus Darwin's theories have significant bearing on her purposes in Frankenstein. Erasmus Darwin was most famous for his work on evolution and the growth of plants, and it is this work that Mary Shelley affirmed. Victor Frankenstein is portrayed as a direct opponent of Darwin's teachings, as an anti-evolutionist and a parodic perpetrator of an erroneous "Creation Theory." To perceive this dimension of Victor Frankenstein's project, we must first review the basic tenets of Erasmus Darwin's theories as they appear in his major works, The Botanic Garden (1789, 1791), Zoonomia; or, The Laws of Organic Life (1794), Phytologia (1800), and The Temple of Nature (1803). Eighteenth-century scientists generally conceived of the universe as a perfect, static world created by divine fiat at a single moment in time. This universe, metaphorically represented as a "great chain of being," manifested myriad and minute gradations between the species, but these relationships were regarded as fixed and permanent. {{96}} As Linnaeus, the great eighteenth-century classifier of all known plant life, insisted in his Systema Naturae (1735), "Nullae species novae" -- no new species can come into existence in a divinely ordered, perfect world. But by the end of the eighteenth century, under pressure from Herschel's new discoveries in astronomy, Cuvier's paleontological researches, William Smith's studies of fossil stratification, Sprengel's work on botanical crossbreeding and fertilization, and observations made with an increasingly powerful microscope, together with a more diffuse Leibnizian "natural theology" that emphasized the study of nature and her interactions with human populations, the orthodox Linnaean concept of an immutable physical universe had begun to weaken.9 Erasmus Darwin was inspired by the researches of the Comte du Buffon, the "father of evolution," who in his huge Histoire Naturelle (44 volumes, 1749-1804) had described myriads of flora and fauna and interspersed comments on the progressive "degeneration" of life forms {294} from earlier and more uniform species, often caused by environmental or climatic changes. Although he adhered to the concept of the scala naturae and the immutability of species, Buffon was the first to discuss seriously such central evolutionary problems as the origin of the earth, the extinction of species, the theory of "common descent," and in particular the reproductive isolation between two incipient species.10 Significantly, it was to Buffon that Victor Frankenstein also turned after his early disillusionment with the alchemists, and Buffon whom he "still read . . . with delight" (F, p. 36).11 But it was Erasmus Darwin who for English readers first synthesized and popularized the concept of the evolution of species through natural selection over millions of years. By 1803, Erasmus Darwin had accepted, on the basis of shell and fossil remains in the highest geological strata, that the earth must once have been covered by water and hence that all life began in the sea. As Darwin concisely summed up this theory of evolution in his notes to The Temple of Nature, After islands or continents were raised above the primeval ocean, great numbers of the most simple animals would attempt to seek food at the edges or shores of the new land, and might thence gradually become amphibious; as is now seen in the frog, who changes from an aquatic animal to an amphibious one, and in the gnat, which changes from a natant to a volant one. At the same time new microscopic animalcules would immediately commence wherever there was warmth and moisture, and some organic matter, that might induce putridity. Those situated on dry land, and immersed in dry air, may gradually acquire new powers to preserve their existence; and by innumerable successive reproductions for some thousands, or perhaps millions of ages, may at length have produced many of the vegetable and animal inhabitants which now people the earth. As innumerable shell-fish must have existed a long time beneath the ocean, before the calcareous mountains were produced and elevated; it is also probable, that many of the insect tribes, or less complicate animals, existed long before the quadrupeds or more complicate ones.12 Meditating on the suggestion that mankind descended from "one family of monkeys on the banks of the Mediterranean" that learned to use and strengthen the thumb muscle and "by this improved use of the sense of touch . . . acquired clear ideas, and gradually became men," Darwin speculated, {295} {{97}} Perhaps all the productions of nature are in their progress to greater perfection! an idea countenanced by modern discoveries and deductions concerning the progressive formation of the solid parts of the terraqueous globe, and consonant to the dignity of the Creator of all things. (Temple of Nature, p. 54) Darwin further suggested that such evolutionary improvement is the direct result of sexual selection: A great want of one part of the animal world has consisted in the desire of the exclusive possession of the females; and these have acquired weapons to bombard each other for this purpose, as the very thick, shield-like, horny skin on the shoulder of the boar is a defense only against animals of his own species, who strike obliquely upwards, nor are his tusk for other purposes, except to defend himself, as he is not naturally a carnivorous animal. So the horns of the stag are not sharp to offend his adversary, but are branched for the purpose of parrying or receiving the thrusts of horns similar to his own, and have therefore been formed for the purpose of combating other stags for the exclusive possession of the females; who are observed, like the ladies in the times of chivalry, to attend the car of the victor.13 Erasmus Darwin anticipated the modern discovery of mutations, noting in his discussion of monstrous births that monstrosities, or mutations, may be inherited: "Many of these enormities of shape are propagated, and continued as a variety at least, if not as a new species of animal. I have seen a breed of cats with an additional claw on every foot" (Zoonomia, 1794, 1: 501). In relation to Frankenstein, Erasmus Darwin's most significant evolutionary concept was that of the hierarchy of reproduction. Again and again, in Zoonomia, in The Botanic Garden, in Phytologia, and in The Temple of Nature, Darwin insisted that sexual reproduction is at a higher evolutionary level than hermaphroditic or solitary paternal propagation. As Darwin commented in his note "Reproduction" in The Temple of Nature, The microscopic productions of spontaneous vitality, and the next most inferior kinds of vegetables and animals, propagate by solitary generation only; as the buds and bulbs raised immediately from seeds, the lycoperdon tuber, with probably many other fungi, and the polypus, volvox, and taenia. Those of the next order propagate both by solitary and sexual reproduction, as those buds and bulbs which produce flowers as well as other buds or bulbs; and the aphis and probably many other {296} insects. Whence it appears, that many of those vegetables and animals, which are produced by solitary generation, {{98}} gradually become more perfect, and at length produce a sexual progeny. A third order of organic nature consists of hermaphrodite vegetables and animals, as in those flowers which have anthers and stigmas in the same corol; and in many insects, as leeches, snails, and worms; and perhaps all those reptiles which have no bones. . . And, lastly, the most perfect orders of animals are propagated by sexual intercourse only. (Temple of Nature, Additional Notes, pp. 36-37) This concept of the superiority of sexual reproduction over paternal propagation was so important to Erasmus Darwin that it forced him radically to revise his concept of reproduction in his third, "corrected" edition of Zoonomia. In 1794, Darwin had argued, following Aristotle, that male plants produce the seed or embryon, while female plants provide only nourishment to this seed, and by analogy, had contended "that the mother does not contribute to the formation of the living ens in normal generation, but is necessary only for supplying its nutriment and oxigenation" (Zoonomia, 1794, I: 487). He then attributed all monstrous births to the female, saying that deformities result from either excessive or insufficient nourishment in the egg or uterus (p. 497). But by 1801, Darwin's observations of both animal and vegetable mules had convinced him that both male and female seeds contribute to the innate characteristics of the species (see Zoonomia, 1801, 2: 296-97. Interestingly, while Darwin no longer attributed monstrous births to uterine deficiencies or excesses, he continued to hold the male imagination at the moment of conception responsible for determining both the sex of the child and its outstanding traits: I conclude, that the act of generation cannot exist without being accompanied with ideas, and that a man must have at this time either a general idea of his own mate form, or of the forms of his male organs; or an idea of the female form, or of her organs, and that this marks the sex, and the peculiar resemblances of the child to either parent. (Zoonomia, 1794, p. 524; 1801, 2: 270) {{99}} The impact of the female imagination on the seed in utero is less intense, argued Darwin, because it lasts for a longer period of time and is therefore more diffuse. It follows that Darwin, in 1801, attributed the bulk of monstrous births to the male imagination, a point of obvious relevance to Frankenstein. {297} Erasmus Darwin's work on what he called "the economy of vegetation" has equally significant implications for Frankenstein. Darwin's comments on plant nutrition, photosynthesis, and the use of fertilizers and manures in Phytologia for the first time put gardening and agriculture on a sound scientific basis.14 Again and again in this lengthy work, Darwin emphasized the necessity to recycle all organic matter. His discussion of manures runs to over 25,000 words and is by far the largest section in this book on plant agriculture. The best manures, Darwin reports, are: organic matters, which . . . will by their slow solution in or near the surface of the earth supply the nutritive sap-juice to vegetables. Hence all kinds of animal and vegetable substances, which will undergo a digestive process, or spontaneous solution, as the flesh, fat, skin and bones of animals; with their secretions of bile, saliva, mucus; and their excretions of urine and ordure and also the fruit, meal, oil, leaves, wood of vegetables, when properly decomposed on or beneath the soil, supply the most nutritive food to plants.15 He urges every gardener and farmer to save all organic matter for manure, "even the parings of his nails and the clippings of his hair" (p. 241), and further urges the heretical notion that the soil nourished by the decomposition of human bodies ought to be available for growing plants. Mourning the waste of rich soil in churchyards and cemeteries, he argues that proper burial grounds should be consecrated out of towns, and divided into two compartments, the earth from one of which, saturated with animal decomposition, should be taken away once in ten or twenty years, for the purposes of agriculture; and sand or clay, or less fertile soil, brought into its place. (p. 243) Throughout his writings, Darwin described a universe that is constantly evolving in abundant creativity. Donald Hassler tellingly defines Darwin's vision of "material forces moving inexorably over vast distances of time and space, with no supernatural or anthropological agency, to produce nearly infinite configurations of organic and inorganic matter" as Darwin's "comic materialism."16 The phrase neatly combines Darwin's comic acceptance of limitations with his sense for the infinitely expansive potential of the universe. I myself would classify Darwin's celebration of a universe that generates itself out of "one {298} central chaos" and returns to that chaos in a catastrophe that "may again by explosions produce a new world" (Temple of Nature, pp. 166-67) as yet another example of English romantic irony, of that revolutionary conception of a universe that is not created by divine fiat but is rather in constant process, merrily multiplying itself out of an abundant chaos or what Friedrich Schlegel called the Fülle.17 Mary Shelley was introduced to Darwin's thought both by her father and later by her husband, who had been heavily influenced by Darwin's evolutionary theories while writing "Queen Mab." Percy Shelley first read The Botanic Garden in July 1811, and in December 18l2 he ordered Darwin's Zoonomia and The Temple of Nature from the booksellers Hookham and Hickman.18 The extensive impact of Darwin's evolutionary and agricultural theories, as well as of {{100}} his poetic language, on Percy Shelley's Notes to "Queen Mab" and on such poems as "The Cloud," "The Sensitive Plant," and Prometheus Unbound has been well documented.19 It is clear that Darwin's work remained vivid in Percy Shelley's mind throughout the period in which Mary Shelley was writing Frankenstein, as his prefatory comment to the novel testifies. II Reading Frankenstein against the background of Darwin's work, we can see that Mary Shelley directly pitted Victor Frankenstein, that modern Prometheus, against those gradual evolutionary processes of nature described by Darwin. Victor Frankenstein wants to originate a new life form quickly, by chemical means. In his Faustian thirst for knowledge and power, he dreams: Life and death appeared to me ideal bounds, which I should first break through, and pour a torrent of light into our dark world. A new species would bless me as its creator and source; many happy and excellent natures would owe their being to me. (F, p. 49) Significantly, in his attempt to create a new species, Victor Frankenstein substitutes solitary paternal propagation for sexual reproduction. He thus reverses the evolutionary ladder described by Darwin. And he engages in a notion of science that Mary Shelley deplores, the idea that science should manipulate and control rather than describe and understand nature. {299} Moreover, his imagination at the moment of conception is fevered and unhealthy; as he tells Walton, Every night I was oppressed by a slow fever, and I became nervous to a most painful degree; . . . my voice became broken, my trembling hands almost refused to accomplish their task; I became as timid as a love-sick girl, and alternate tremor and passionate ardour took the place of wholesome sensation and regulated ambition. (F, p. 51) Under such mental circumstances, according to Darwin, the resultant creation could only be a monster. Frankenstein has further increased the monstrousness of his creation by making a form that is both larger and more simple than a normal human being. As he acknowledges to Walton, "As the minuteness of the parts formed a great hindrance to my speed, I resolved, contrary to my first intention, to make the being of a gigantic stature; that is to say, about eight feet in height, and proportionably large" (F, p. 49). {{101}} Darwin had observed that nature moves "from simpler things to more compound" (Phytologia, p. 118); in defying nature's law, Victor Frankenstein has created not a more perfect species but a degenerative one. In his attempt to override natural evolutionary development and to create a new species sui generis, Victor Frankenstein enacts a parody of the orthodox creationist theory. While he denies the unique power of God to create organic life, he confirms the capacity of a single creator to originate a new species. Thus he simultaneously upholds the creationist theory and parodies it by creating only a monster. In both ways, he blasphemes against the natural order of things. He moves down rather than up the evolutionary ladder; he reverses human progress and perverts the law of the survival of the fittest. And he denies the natural mode of human reproduction through sexual procreation. Victor Frankenstein perverts natural evolutionary progress in yet another way. Despite Darwin's insistence that all dead organic matter including decomposing human flesh and bones found in cemeteries ought to be saved for compost heaps and manure, Victor Frankenstein removes human flesh and bones from graveyards. And he does so not in order to generate life organically through what Darwin described as spontaneous animal vitality in microscopic cells"20 but to create a new life form through chemical engineering. Frankenstein has thus dis- {300} rupted the natural life cycle. His attempt to control and speed up the transformation of decomposing organic material into new life forms by artificial means violates the rhythms of nature. Mary Shelley's novel implicitly invokes Darwin's theory of gradual evolutionary progress to suggest both the error and the evil of Victor Frankenstein's bad science. The genuine improvement of the species can result only from the fusing of both male and female sexuality. In trying to have a baby without a woman, Frankenstein denies to his child the maternal love and nurturance it requires, the very nourishment that Darwin explicitly equated with the female sex. Frankenstein's failure to embrace his smiling creature with maternal love, his horrified rejection of his own creation, spells out the narrative consequences of solitary paternal propagation. But even if Frankenstein had been able to provide his child with a mother's care, he could not have prevented its social ostracism and misery. {{102}} It is therefore a triple failure of imagination that curses Victor Frankenstein. First, by not imaginatively identifying with his creation, Frankenstein fails to give his child the parental support he owes to it. He thereby condemns his creature to become what others behold, a monster. Second, by imagining that the male can produce a higher form of evolutionary species by lateral propagation than by sexual procreation, Frankenstein defines his own imagination as profoundly anti-evolutionary and thus antiprogressive. Third, in assuming that he can create a perfect species by chemical means, Frankenstein defies a central tenet of romantic poetic ideology: that the creative imagination must work spontaneously, unconsciously, and above all organically, creating forms that are themselves organic heterocosms. Moreover, in trying to create a human being as God created Adam, out of earth and water, all at once, Victor Frankenstein robs nature of something more than fertilizer. "On a dreary night in November, . . . with an anxiety that almost amounted to agony," Victor Frankenstein infused "a spark of being into the lifeless thing that lay" at his feet (F, p. 52). At that moment Victor Frankenstein became the modern Prometheus, stealing fire from the gods to give to mankind and thus overthrowing the established, sacred order of both earth and heaven. At that moment he transgressed against nature. To understand the full implications of Frankenstein's transgression, {301} we must recognize that his stolen "spark of life" is not merely fire; it is also that recently discovered caloric fluid called electricity. Victor's interest in legitimate science is first aroused by the sight of lightning destroying an old oak tree; it is then that he learns of the existence of electricity and replicates Benjamin Franklin's experiment with kite and key and draws down "that fluid from the clouds" (F, p. 35). In the late eighteenth century, there was widespread interest in Franklin's and Father Beccaria's discoveries of atmospheric electricity, in static electricity, and in artificial or mechanical electricity generated through such machines as the Leyden jar. Many scientists explored the possibility, derived from Newton's concept of the ether as an elastic medium capable of transmitting the pulsations of light, heat, gravitation, magnetism, and electricity, that the atmosphere was filled with a thin fluid that was positively and negatively charged and that could be identified as a single animating principle appearing under multiple guises (as light, heat, magnetism, etc.). Erasmus Darwin speculated that the perpetual necessity of air to the human organism suggests that "the spirit of animation itself is thus acquired from the atmosphere, which if it be supposed to be finer or more subtle than the electric matter, could not long be retained in our bodies and must therefore require perpetual renovation.21 {{103}} And Humphry Davy, founder of the field of electrochemistry, first gave authoritative voice to a theory of matter as electrically charged atoms. In his Elements of Chemical Philosophy, Davy argued: Whether matter consists of indivisible corpuscles, or physical points endowed with attraction and repulsion, still the same conclusions may be formed concerning the powers by which they act, and the quantities in which they combine; and the powers seem capable of being measured by their electrical relations, and the quantities on which they act of being expressed by numbers. (p. 57) He further concluded that it is evident that the particles of matter must have space between them; and . . . it is a probable inference that [each body's] own particles are possessed of motion; but . . . the motion, if it exist, must be a vibratory or undulatory motion, or a motion of the particles round their axes, or a motion of particles round each other. (p. 95) {302} Reading Darwin and Davy encouraged Percy Shelley in scientific speculations that he had embarked upon much earlier, as a schoolboy at Dr. Greenlaw's Syon House Academy in 1802. Inspired by the famous lectures of Dr. Adam Walker, Percy Shelley had early learned to think of electricity and the processes of chemical attraction and repulsion as modes of a single polarized force. Walker even identified electricity as the spark of life itself. At the conclusion of his discussion of electricity in his A System of Familiar Philosophy, Walker enthused, Its power of exciting muscular motion in apparently dead animals, as well as of increasing the growth, invigorating the stamina, and reviving diseased vegetation, prove its relationship or affinity to the living principle. Though, Proteus-like, it eludes our grasp; plays with our curiosity; tempts enquiry by fallacious appearances and attacks our weakness under so many perplexing subtilties; yet it is impossible not to believe it the soul of the material world, and the paragon of elements!22 Percy Shelley's basic scientific concepts had long been familiar to Mary Shelley, ever since the early days of their relationship when he {{104}} ritually celebrated his birthday by launching fire balloons.23 That Percy Shelley endorsed Adam Walker's identification of life with electricity is everywhere apparent in his poetry. The imagery of Prometheus Unbound explicitly associates electricity with love, light, and life itself, as in the final act where the Spirit of the Earth, earlier imaged as a Cupid figure, becomes a radiant orb -- or "ten thousand orbs involving and involved" -- of pure energy. And on the forehead of the spirit sleeping within this "sphere within sphere" is a "star" (or negative electrode) that shoots "swords of azure fire" (the blue flames of electrical discharges) or Vast beams like spokes of some invisible wheel Which whirl as the orb whirls, swifter than thought, Filling the abyss with sun-like lightnings, And perpendicular now, and now transverse, Pierce the dark soil, and as they pierce and pass, Make bare the secrets of the Earth's deep heart.24 When Victor Frankenstein steals the spark of being, then, he is literally stealing Jupiter's lightning bolt, as Benjamin Franklin had proved. But in Percy Shelley's terms, he is also stealing the very life of nature, the source of both love and electricity. {303} Fully to appreciate the science that lies behind Victor Frankenstein's endeavors, however, we must remember that in the 1831 Preface to Frankenstein, Mary Shelley specifically associated electricity with galvanism. In 1831, Victor Frankenstein is disabused of his belief in the alchemists by a "man of great research in natural philosophy" who teaches him the "theory which he had formed on the subject of electricity and galvanism" (F, p. 238); and in her Preface, Mary Shelley directly linked the attempt to give life to dead matter with galvanism. After referring to Dr. Darwin's vermicelli experiment, she writes: "Not thus, after all, would life be given. Perhaps a corpse would be reanimated; galvanism had given token of such things: perhaps the component parts of a creature might be manufactured, brought together, and endued with vital warmth" (F, p. 227). In 1791 the Bolognese physiologist Luigi Galvani published his De Viribus Electricitatis in Motui Musculari (or Commentary on the Effects of Electricity on Muscular Motion),25 in which he came to the conclusion that animal tissue contained a heretofore neglected innate vital force, which he called "animal electricity" but which was subsequently widely known as "galvanism"; this force activated both nerves and muscles when spanned by an arc of metal wires {{105}} connected to a pile of copper and zinc plates. Galvani believed that his new vital force was a form of electricity different from both the "natural" form of electricity produced by lightning or by the torpedo and electric eel and the "artificial" form produced by friction (i.e., static electricity). Galvani argued that the brain is the most important source of the production of this "electric fluid" and that the nerves acted as conductors of this fluid to other nerves and muscles, the tissues of which act much like the outer and inner surfaces of the widely used Leyden jar. Thus the flow of animal electric fluid provided a stimulus which produced contractions of convulsions in the irritable muscle fibers. Galvani's theories made the British headlines in December 1802 when, in the presence of their Royal Highnesses the Prince of Wales and the dukes of York, Clarence, and Cumberland, Galvani's nephew, disciple, and ardent defender, Professor Luigi Aldini of Bologna University, applied a voltaic pile connected by metallic wires to the ear and nostrils of a recently killed ox head. At that moment, "the eyes were seen to open, the ears to shake, the tongue to be agitated, and the {304} nostrils to swell, in the same manner as those of the living animal, when irritated and desirous of combating another of the same species."26 But Professor Aldini's most notorious demonstration of galvanic electricity took place on 17 January 1803 -- On that day he applied galvanic electricity to the corpse of the murderer Thomas Forster. The body of the recently hanged criminal was collected from Newgate, where it had lain in the prison yard at a temperature Of 30 degrees Fahrenheit for one hour, by the president of the College of Surgeons, Mr. Keate, and brought immediately to Mr. Wilson's anatomical theater where the following experiments were performed. When wires attached to a pile composed of 120 plates of zinc and 120 plates of copper were connected to the ear and mouth of the dead criminal, Aldini later reported, "the jaw began to quiver, the adjoining muscles were horribly contorted, and the left eye actually opened" (p. 193) -- When the wires were applied to the dissected thumb muscles, they "induced a forcible effort to clench the hand"; when applied to the ear and rectum, they "excited in the muscles contractions much stronger . . . The action even of those muscles furthest distant from the points of contact with the arc was so much increased as almost to give an appearance of re-animation." And when volatile alkali was smeared on the nostrils and mouth before the galvanic stimulus was applied, "the convulsions appeared to be much increased . . . and extended from the muscles of the head, face, and neck, as far as the deltoid. The effect in this case surpassed our most sanguine expectations," Aldini exults, and remarkably concludes that "vitality might, perhaps, have been {{106}} restored, if many circumstances had not rendered it impossible" (pp. 194-95). Here is the scientific prototype of Victor Frankenstein, restoring life to dead bodies.¶ An event so notorious and so widely reported in the popular press must have been discussed in both the Shelley and Godwin households at the time and would have been recalled, however inaccurately, during the conversations between Shelley and Byron in which the possibility of reanimating a corpse was discussed. Indeed, the popular interest in galvanic electricity reached such a pitch in Germany that an edict forbidding the use of decapitated criminals' heads for galvanic experiments was passed in Prussia in 1804. It is probably to these events, as well as to experiments in Germany by F. H. A. Humboldt, C. J. C. Grapengiesser, and Johann Caspar Creve and reports of them pub- {305} lished by J. A. Heidmann and Lorenz Oken, that Percy Shelley referred in his Preface to Frankenstein when he insisted that "the event on which this fiction is founded has been supposed, by Dr. Darwin and some of the physiological writers of Germany, as not of impossible occurrence" (F, p. 6). Even though Erasmus Darwin never fully endorsed the revolutionary theory of Galvani and Volta that electricity is the cause of muscular motion, he was convinced that electricity stimulated plant growth (Botanic Garden, 1:463). {{107}} Mary Shelley's familiarity with these galvanic experiments came not only from Shelley and Byron, but also from Byron's physician, Dr. William Polidori. As a medical student at the University of Edinburgh, Polidori had been exposed to the latest galvanic theories and experiments by the famous Edinburgh physician Dr. Charles Henry Wilkinson, whose review of the literature, Elements of Galvanism in Theory and Practice, was published in 1804. Dr. Wilkinson continued research on galvanism and developed his own galvanic treatments for intermittent fevers, amaurosis, and quinsy, and he reported several successes. II Mary Shelley based Victor Frankenstein's attempt to create a new species from dead organic matter through the use of chemistry and electricity on the most advanced scientific research of the early nineteenth century. But Frankenstein reflects much more than merely an intelligent use of the latest scientific knowledge. Perhaps because she was a woman, Mary Shelley understood that much of the scientific research of her day incorporated an attempt to dominate the female. Francis Bacon heralded the seventeenth-century scientific revolution as a calculated attempt to control and exploit female Nature: "I am come in very truth leading to you Nature with all her children to bind her to your service and make her your slave." Bacon's metap

The resultshere, indicating impact on positive but not negative dimensionsof sibling relations and child adjustment, also suggest that thereis an opportunity to improve SIBS. The program’s partial successevidences the promise of incorporating siblings into theprevention repertoire. We envision future development of thisand other programs focused on sibling relationships as well asintegrating sibling-focused strategies into other family-, school-,and community-based programs.

But that also hides a number of smaller (and more measurable) outcomes. For example, hidden within "Can write a non-trivial Scheme program" is a few dozen smaller things that I expect students to do with Scheme: Write a procedure; include parameters in the procedure; call a procedure; sequence operations by nesting; sequence side-effecting operations in the body of a procedure or let; define local variables with let or let*; know the difference between let and let*; understand lists and the core operations on lists, such as cons, car, cdr, and null?; understand the different kinds of numbers (integers, reals, and complex numbers, each of which can be exact or inexact) and the operations on them; use conditionals and predicates; and so on and so forth. And that ignores the higher-level things, such as design an algorithm, design tests for the algorithm, consider edge cases, decompose a problem, and more.

The College aims to graduate individuals who can think clearly, who can speak and write persuasively and even eloquently, who can evaluate critically both their own and others' ideas, who can acquire new knowledge, and who are prepared in life and work to use their knowledge and their abilities to serve the common good.

While I haven't drunk the kool aid [5] of measurable course learning outcomes, I do think it's worthwhile to try to follow recommendations [6]. So I've been thinking about learning outcomes.

It is a rather late evening. I sit on the stair of Quincy Market. Night is the most emotional time of day. From social perspective, night is when we truly pull off our “masks.” We all play multiple roles during the day: daughters, sons, students, friends, etc. Different roles demand us to behave differently in order to meet the social norm. Students are supposed to follow rules. Kids are supposed to respect elders. Friends are supposed to sit together and talk. But at night, when we are mostly alone, there is no “supposed to be”. The only person we need to deal with is ourselves. Our focus shifts from what others might think of us to what we think about ourselves. The location where we meditate also matters because different places may trigger us to think about different things in our lives. Quincy Market is the place that night for me to greet and embrace myself. The whole market, as always, is immersed in the aroma of food—chocolate’s sweetness, cheese’s sourness and grilled sausages’ fragrance… People walking in and out of the market’s entrance are drowning in this happiness and satisfaction. Chewing, chatting, whispering, laughing… I observe these people in the square from the sidelines. There is a guy standing in the middle of the empty space, facing me, playing his guitar and singing love songs. He uses tiny, twinkling, colorful light bulbs to decorate his guitar case, and uses the case to collect tips. Behind him, there are three benches. A young couple is sitting together on one bench, feeding each other pizza. A middle aged woman is sitting next to them, tapping her toes with the beat of the song. A family is sitting on another bench. The father is taking pictures of the performer, and the mother is fondling the baby’s face. How nice. I always love people watching, because I like imagining different kinds of lives in other people’s shoes. But this night, I lose my ability to interpret and imagine. I try to fantasize that I am the man, the couple, the woman, the baby… but I can’t. I fail completely, because my heart is not there, but somewhere else. Staring at them, I feel a sense of alienation, as if I am watching a movie, as if I do not belong here, as if I am sitting in another dimension, watching all these movements like an outsider of this peaceful life and an intruder in this harmonic image. That man’s intimacy with his guitar is not a part of my world. The young couple’s romance is not a part of my world. The woman’s impulse to dance is not a part of my world. Even the family’s harmony that can be mine, shall be mine, used to be mine is not a part of my world at that moment. The market is booming, busy, lonely. I don’t know where to look. I feel lost. This is not the same Quincy Market. The sky is utterly dark, without stars. I can feel time ticking forward by looking at people’s movements and listening to guitar’s melody. What I see don’t belong to me, but the object that makes all these scenes visible to me is solely mine—that light, shinning from the lamp next to the bench where that family was sitting. The bulb of the lamp looks like a transparent bubble. The white effulgence occupies the space inside the bulb very fully, like if the bulb bursts, the light will become crystallized and spill out like diamonds. That light grabs all my attention and become a visual focus. No one claims the light, so I decide to float with it for a while. Unlike other light, its radiation is so pure that I feel like it is staring at me. The sudden thought that it is communicating with me emotionally surprises and unsettles me for a while, but soon I begin to enjoy this strange attachment. Like a mysterious force, the light pushes me to face the very core of myself.  Questions buried in my heart that I wish somebody would ask me pop up in my mind one after another: Recognize that bench? You sat on that bench with your parents the other day. How’s the lobster roll in your hand taste? Isn’t it as good as the one your mother had? How do you like the music? Hear the musician sang: “And if you want to cry / I am here to dry your eyes/ and in no time, you’ll be fine…?” (Sade, By Your Side, Line 13-15) Your mom said that she guessed you would be fine, remember? Are you fine? How’s school? How’s life? And… how are you? I can’t help myself responding to those questions over and over again. That conversation is so personal, so sentimental, so ethereal. While I am answering them, a sudden warmth takes over me along with an overwhelming bitterness that made me want to cry. The juxtaposition of past and present amplifies the sadness and loneliness. All alone in the crowd, I am reminded I am not home. All the things are still here, but people are not the same. I feel like I am sitting in a kaleidoscope with scenes of time spent with my parents constantly overlapping with what I am seeing right now at the same location but alone. Together, these different scenes create a sense of dizziness that make me want to shake my head and figure out what have happened to me during the time in between of these two experiences. Why this contrast makes me emotional? Answers to previous simple questions triggered by the light now become clues for this complex question. At that moment, I was certain that the light was the origin of unexpected warmth and the generator of this kaleidoscope of loving memory and current loneliness. I realize that the light has just led me to communicate genuinely to myself in a way that is rare in my daily life, so I am drawn into this communication deeper and deeper with that perfectly alluring light as my muse. Although I feel there may be too many things going on at the same time, I am not lost. I am not alone anymore. I am with myself.

I am impressed by the strong life force and the bravery of these creatures. As humans, we usually are disappointed by having imperfect body shapes, earning low incomes, and being unable to be with the people we like. These things all seem superficial when I think about the difficulties that these marine creatures have to face. We should seize every moment we have. This passage enables me to reflect on my past experiences. I try to excel at everything, but fail to recognize the importance and luck of simply being alive. How foolish and ignorant am I?! I feel ashamed, but I question the reason that these creatures try so hard to live. Can they think? What’s the meaning of staying alive for them? Do they live for nothing? I don’t know, and I may never figure these doubts out

In the education of youth, provision is to be made for 1. tuition. 2 diet. 3. lodging. 4. government: and 5. honorary excitements

To these should be added the arts, which embellish life, dancing music & drawing; the last more especially, as an important part of military education. These innocent arts furnish amusement & happiness to those who, having time on their hands, might less inoffensively employ it; needing, at the same time, no regular incorporation with the institution, they may be left to accessory teachers,

As well might it be urged that the wild & uncultivated tree, hitherto yielding sour & bitter fruit only, can never be made to yield better: yet we know that the grafting art implants a new tree on the savage stock, producing what is most estimable both in kind & degree

"We know that 95 percent of adult smokers begin smoking before they turn 21. I think the governor in Hawaii said it very well when he was signing the bill. 'Raising the minimum age as part of our comprehensive tobacco control efforts will help reduce tobacco use among our youth and increase the likelihood that our keiki will grow up to be tobacco-free,'" May said, quoting Governor Ige. Keiki is the Hawaiian word for children.

German now stands in a line with that of the most learned nations in richness of erudition and advance in the sciences. It is too of common descent with the language of our own Country, a branch of the same Original Gothic Stock, and furnishes Valuable illustrations for us. But in this point of View the Anglo-Saxon is of peculiar value. We have placed it among the modern languages because it is in fact that which we speak, in the earliest form in which we have knowledge of it. It has been undergoing, with time, those gradual changes which all languages, antient and modern, have experienced: and even now, needs only to be printed in the Modern character and Orthography, to be intelligible in a considerable degree to an English reader

The best mode of government for youth in large collections, is certainly a desideratum not yet attained with us. It may well be questioned whether fear, after a certain age, is the motive to which we should have ordinary recourse. The human character is susceptible of other incitements to correct conduct, more worthy of employ, and of better effect. Pride of character, laudable ambition, & moral dispositions are innate correctives of the indiscretions of that lively age; and when strengthened by habitual appeal & exercise, have a happier effect on future character, than the degrading motive of fear; hardening them to disgrace, to corporal punishments, and servile humiliations, cannot be the best process for producing erect character.

a maximum for their salaries, (which should be a certain but moderate subsistence, to be made up by liberal tuition fees

We are further of opinion that, after declaring by law that certain sciences shall be taught in the universit

A language already fraught with all the eminent sciences of our parent Country the future Vehicle of whatever we may Ourselves atchieve and destined to Occupy so much space on the Globe, claims distinguished attention in American Education.

4. The best mode of government for youth in large collections, is certainly a desideratum not yet attained with us. It may well be questioned whether fear, after a certain age, is the motive to which we should have ordinary recourse. The human character is susceptible of other incitements to correct conduct, more worthy of employ, and of better effect. Pride of character, laudable ambition, & moral dispositions are innate correctives of the indiscretions of that lively age; and when strengthened by habitual appeal & exercise, have a happier effect on future character, than the degrading motive of fear; hardening them to disgrace, to corporal punishments, and servile humiliations, cannot be the best process for producing erect character.

the admission of enlargement to any degree to which the institution may extend in future times.

but a besotted veneration for the supposed supe[r]lative wisdom of their fathers and the preposterous idea that they are to look backward for better things and not forward, longing, as it should seem, to return to the days of eating acorns and roots rather than indulge in the degeneracies of civilization.

Whoever has seen deeply into the world has doubtless divined what wisdom there is in the fact that men are superficial. It is their preservative instinct which teaches them to be flighty, lightsome, and false. Here and there one finds a passionate and exaggerated adoration of "pure forms" in philosophers as well as in artists: it is not to be doubted that whoever has NEED of the cult of the superficial to that extent, has at one time or another made an unlucky dive BENEATH it. Perhaps there is even an order of rank with respect to those burnt children, the born artists who find the enjoyment of life only in trying to FALSIFY its image

In entering on this field, the commissioners are aware that they have to encounter much difference of opinion as to the extent which it is expedient that this institution should occupy. Some good men, and even of respectable information, consider the learned sciences as useless acquirements; some think that they do not better the condition of men; and others that education like private & individual concerns, should be left to private & individual effort; not reflecting that an establishment, embracing all the sciences which may be useful & even necessary in the various vocations of life, with the buildings & apparatus belonging to each, are far beyond the reach of individual means, & must either derive existence from public patronage or not exist at all

am tired of talking about Black folks and racism. This time I will talk about whiteness and White people.

The best mode of government for youth in large collections, is certainly a desideratum not yet attained with us. It may well be questioned whether fear, after a certain age, is the motive to which we should have ordinary recourse. The human character is susceptible of other incitements to correct conduct, more worthy of employ, and of better effect.

Some good men, and even of respectable information, consider the learned sciences as useless acquirements; some think that they do not better the condition of men; and others that education like private & individual concerns, should be left to private & individual effort; not reflecting that an establishment, embracing all the sciences which may be useful & even necessary in the various vocations of life,

The use of tools too in the manual arts is worthy of encouragement, by facilitating, to such as choose it, an admission into the neighbouring workshops. To these should be added the arts, which embellish life, dancing music & drawing; the last more especially, as an important part of military education. These innocent arts furnish amusement & happiness to those who, having time on their hands, might less inoffensively employ it; needing, at the same time, no regular incorporation with the institution, they may be left to accessory teachers, who will be paid by the individuals employing them; the university only providing proper apartments for their exercise.

The best mode of government for youth in large collections, is certainly a desideratum not yet attained with us. It may well be questioned whether fear, after a certain age, is the motive to which we should have ordinary recourse.

Some good men, and even of respectable information, consider the learned sciences as useless acquirements; some think that they do not better the condition of men; and others that education like private & individual concerns, should be left to private & individual effort; not reflecting that an establishment, embracing all the sciences which may be useful & even necessary in the various vocations of life, with the buildings & apparatus belonging to each, are far beyond the reach of individual means, & must either derive existence from public patronage or not exist at all.

ncient Greece was known for their propensity to bring upon justice in a way that is not morally relevant to many readers today. During Aeschylus’ lifetime life in Athens was organized under the rule of a tyrant, and since democracy had not been developed, justice was achieved through cycles of severe punishment typically ending in death. Because Athens at this time operated under Draconian Law the majority of one’s offenses were punishable by death. We see many examples within Greek tragedies where the roles between hero and villain conflict with our contemporary perceptions and ability to distinguish right from wrong. As readers, we must learn to adapt and expand our capacity to experience while reading these tragedies in order to understand why characters may actually be justified in their actions. In the tragedy Agamemnon, there are two contrasting ways to interpret the role of Clytemnestra, but we must detach ourselves and inspect her character apart from absolutism. There exist readers who will judge her as the villain and others will consider her a heroine, but with a thorough inspection of her complex character as a woman, one will notice that she operates with a uniform integrity and moral strength in order to achieve fundamental justice within the given the context. Whereas Agamemnon moral conduct can be disputed due to his inhere

While Joshua dealt with Israel as a nation acting in unity, Judges tends to deal with Israel’s tribes independently. Chapter 1 dwells mainly on the tribe of Judah, which teams up with that of Simeon. When we encounter the terms “Judah” and “Simeon,” we are not to think of these men, who are long since dead, but of the tribes of Judah and Simeon. The oppression of a neighboring country, the raising up of a judge, and the liberation resulting may not encompass the entire nation of Israel. It could impact a smaller area and perhaps one or more of the tribes. Thus, the tribes of Israel are dealt with in a case-by-case manner.

Education, in like manner engrafts a new man on the native stock, & improves what in his nature was vicious & perverse, into qualities of virtue and social worth; and it cannot be but that each generation succeeding to the knowledge acquired by all those who preceded it, adding to it their own acquisitions & discoveries, and handing the mass down for successive & constant accumulation, must advance the knowledge & well-being of mankind

A Professor is proposed for antient Languages, the Latin, Greek and Hebrew, particularly, but these Languages being the foundation common to all the Sciences, it is difficult to foresee what may be the extent of this school.

”In this enquiry they supposed that the governing considerations should be the healthiness of the site, the fertility of the neighbouring country, and it’s centrality to the white population of the whole state:

To expound the principles & structure of government, the laws which regulate the intercourse of nations

Some good men, and even of respectable information, consider the learned sciences as useless acquirements; some think that they do not better the condition of men; and others that education like private & individual concerns, should be left to private & individual effort; not reflecting that an establishment, embracing all the sciences which may be useful & even necessary in the various vocations of life, with the buildings & apparatus belonging to each, are far beyond the reach of individual means, & must either derive existence from public patronage or not exist at all.

We deferred our excursion till the afternoon; a golden afternoon of August: every breath from the hills so full of life, that it seemed whoever respired it, though dying, might revive.

On a pair of ordinary glasses is a square of fine lines near the top of one lens, where it is out of the way of ordinary vision.

Education generates habits of application, order and the love of virtue; and controuls, by the force of habit, any innate obliquities in our moral organization.

you cannot destroy the practices of barbarism, of slavery, of superstition, which for centuries have desolated the interior of Africa, without the use of force; but if you will fairly contrast the gain to humanity with the price which we are bound to pay for it, I think you may well rejoice in the result of such expeditions as those which have recently been conducted with such signal success

Despite the advantages, Michelle Appleby, senior lecturer of education studies at the University of Derby, has expressed some of the disadvantages that interdisciplinary students may face: “one of the biggest barriers to achieving true interdisciplinary study in education environments is the necessity for collaboration of educators.” One of the capstones of higher education is the collaboration between students, professors, and advisors. Departments are made of people working towards the same goal, taking similar classes, and exchanging similar ideas. Interdisciplinary students are removed from the “common core” experience of education, creating a personalized layout instead. One of the benefits of a common core trajectory is the sense of community it brings to education, a sense of community that some interdisciplinary students may not experience in the same way that traditional students experience it.

said goodbye instead and glaredat the tumorless people and their pretty tumorless heads

When children arrived singly, and not wearing masks, only 8% of them stole any of the money. When they were in larger groups, with their identities concealed by fancy dress, that number rose to 80%.

3. Playing Tetris for just three minutes stops your craving for sex, alcohol and food.A team of psychologists from Plymouth University and Queensland University of Technology have determined, after many hours of Tetris, that the game can be addicting and distract users from doing other stuff for a while like eating, drinking and having sex. It kind of makes you wonder how they managed to finish the study.“We think the Tetris effect happens because craving involves imagining the experience of consuming a particular substance or indulging in a particular activity,” said one researcher. “Playing a visually interesting game like Tetris occupies the mental processes that support that imagery; it is hard to imagine something vividly and play Tetris at the same time. As a support tool, Tetris could help people manage their cravings in their daily lives and over extended time periods."Tetris addicting? No way.

Anecdotes alone don’t prove much. And we still await the long-term neurological and psychological experiments that will provide a definitive picture of how Internet use affects cognition. But a recently published study of online research habits, conducted by scholars from University College London, suggests that we may well be in the midst of a sea change in the way we read and think. As part of the five-year research program, the scholars examined computer logs documenting the behavior of visitors to two popular research sites, one operated by the British Library and one by a U.K. educational consortium, that provide access to journal articles, e-books, and other sources of written information. They found that people using the sites exhibited “a form of skimming activity,” hopping from one source to another and rarely returning to any source they’d already visited. They typically read no more than one or two pages of an article or book before they would “bounce” out to another site. Sometimes they’d save a long article, but there’s no evidence that they ever went back and actually read it.

If relevancy is correlated with time and circumstance, then students may think differently about algebra II or the Gulf War in five or ten years

meaning that they may be increasing quicker than previously suggested.

All our steps in creating or absorbing material of the record proceed through one of the senses—the tactile when we touch keys, the oral when we speak or listen, the visual when we read. Is it not possible that some day the path may be established more directly?

Healthy Families is a state-wide home-visiting program available for first-time parents age 20 and under. Services are provided from the beginning of the pregnancy until the child’s third birthday. The program is funded by the Children’s Trust of Massachusetts and provided by KDC out of two locations: Greater New Bedford and Greater Plymouth. You Have Hope Learn how to nurture your child while keeping your life goals in sight. Kennedy-Donovan Center’s Healthy Families Program offers you a range of supports: we want to connect you with relevant community resources while assisting you to be the best parent for your child. Our services are free, voluntary, and 100% confidential. Prepare for parenting by learning about childbirth, baby care skills, playtime ideas, and more. Kennedy-Donovan Center Healthy Families trained staff is here to help young parents through one of the most challenging, yet rewarding, times in life. Strong parenting skills will help your child’s development and growth. We offer information and guidance on the following topics: Pregnancy and childbirth Child development, before and after birth Basic baby care skills Ways to enjoy playtime with your child Alternative forms of discipline How to stay cool when things get tough Supporting your child as a single parent or as a couple Build a bright future for your family and child by building confidence in your parenting abilities. Healthy Families can come to you! Learn about parenting on your schedule in your home or at a place that you choose. Kennedy-Donovan Center Healthy Families matches each young parent with a highly trained professional who visits with you to educate, encourage, and support you as you bond with your child. During a visit, one of our Family Support Advocates will answer any questions you have about pregnancy or your baby. We’ll do a fun activity with you and your child and, in the process, introduce you to appropriate baby care and effective parenting skills. We’ll also take the time to work with you on your personal goals, like going back to school or finding a job. You can talk with our Family Support Advocates about: Pregnancy Healthy child development Proper baby care Effective parenting skills Your personal goals, like going back to school or finding a job Why family support matters: It improves the health of mothers and their children It sets you up for success in school It improves the lives of children It promotes parent-child bonding It helps families function well Prepare for a healthy and happy life by connecting with school programs, medical care, parenting groups, housing support, and more. At Healthy Families, we want to help you with more than just parenting. Setting the stage for stability and success in other areas of your life will help you and your family prosper. Prepare for success by connecting with: School programs Medical care Job planning and career training Child care services Financial and housing support Other young moms and dads Parenting groups in the community Socialize with other young parents and have a say in future group activities. We listen to your ideas to run topic groups on issues that matter to you. Recent groups have covered child development and discipline, toilet training, child behaviors, healthy relationships, and financial supports. Using these resources will set you on track to achieve your life goals. 70% of Healthy Families Massachusetts mothers who were not in school when they enrolled in the program have gone back to finish school and receive their high school diplomas. Two years after enrollment, mothers in Healthy Families Massachusetts were nearly twice as likely to have completed at least one year of college. About Healthy Families Parents who enroll in Healthy Families get results. A study conducted by Tufts University found that Healthy Families Massachusetts: Increases the likelihood of parents achieving self-sufficiency, which includes attending college Promotes better health outcomes for mothers and babies Promotes co-parenting relationships that actively involve fathers Healthy Families is committed to connecting with mothers and fathers. Program Overview Healthy Families provides home-based family support and guidance to first-time parents who are ages 20 and under from the time of pregnancy until the child turns three. How Healthy Families Works Free and voluntary visits with an experienced Family Support Advocate Education and skills-sharing Career support Referrals to school programs; medical care; job placement agencies; Women, Infants, and Children (WIC); child care services; housing support; and more Social events and outings for the family Am I Eligible? New Bedford eligibility: Any parent-to-be or first-time parent who is age 24 or under and has a child under 12 months old at the time of referral is eligible. Plymouth eligibility: Any parent-to-be or first-time parent who is age 20 or under and has a child under 12 months old at the time of referral is eligible. Kennedy-Donovan Center’s Healthy Families Program serves young parents living in the following areas and towns:

From a broad historical and cultural standpoint, Google Books concerns the imposition of ideals of technological rationality and efficiency typical of search engine technology onto the collections of recorded human knowledge, especially as represented in the collections of academic and public libraries around the world. As a large-scale information infrastructure, it radically reorganizes relations between the technologies, institutions, and individuals that work to preserve, organize, and make available the world’s library collections. These activities have historically involved a wide range of actors—from authors to publishers to preservationists to, most importantly for our discussion, librarians. While highlighting the promotion of values like information equality and individual liberty, the dominant narrative of Google Books foregrounds scanning technology and the Books platform as a kind of technological solution, obscuring or erasing the efforts of many other kinds of information workers and professionals, both historical and current. Similarly, the focus of critics has been on the potential negative impact Google’s platform and scanning efforts might have on values like privacy, intellectual freedom, and intellectual property. While important, these critiques still uncritically accept Google Books’ solution-oriented stance, focusing instead on the potentially destructive social consequences of the project. Here, we begin by recounting the dominant narrative of Google Books and the ideology of access it embodies. We will surface an alternative account of the Google Books project that questions the implications of its role as a large-scale collector, organizer, and disseminator of information. If we interpret the Google Books project using the gendered history of librarianship as our lens, we can identify a different way to consider and perform the notion of access to information—in this case, access to the information contained in library books. The gendered history of librarianship grants discursive space to interrogate the Books project’s technologically rational ideology of access, pervasive in discussions of information and communication technologies. This reinterpretation invites us to consider the ways in which education, service, and community are absent from our commonly-held ideology of access and what we stand to lose through failing to note their absence. Google Books, Briefly: Moral Imperatives and Technological Solutions Proponents of large-scale book digitization projects routinely position digitization as a moral imperative. Evoking ideals of plenitude and egalitarianism, they argue that collections of digitized books stand, through their indefinite reproducibility, to promote information equality and cross-cultural awareness and understanding (World Digital Library n.d.; Hart 1992; Open Content Alliance n.d., n.p.). Digitized books are also assumed to be less susceptible to damage or decay. University of Michigan President Mary Sue Coleman (2006)—defending her institution’s decision to participate in Google’s book scanning efforts—argued that ‘nature, politics, and war have always been the mortal enemies of written works’ and ‘by digitizing today’s books, through our own efforts and in partnership with others, we are protecting the written word for all time’ (265-266). Here, the University of Michigan’s partnership with Google is cast as a morally righteous collaboration; the project is positioned as a great and noble preserver of valuable cultural resources. Early in the Google Books project’s development, former Google CEO Eric Schmidt implored the public to ‘imagine the cultural impact of putting tens of millions of previously inaccessible volumes into one vast index, every word of which is searchable by anyone, rich and poor, urban and rural, First World and Third, en toute langue—and all, of course, entirely for free’ (Schmidt 2005, para. 9). This dream of an ‘egalitarianism of information’ based on the digitization and indexing of books even precedes Google itself; before developing a Web search engine, co-founders’ Larry Page and Sergey Brin sought to develop a sort-of Web crawler that would index the contents of digitized books and analyze the connections between them (Google Books n.d.). ‘Even then,’ the company claims, ‘Larry and Sergey envisioned people everywhere being able to search through all of the world’s books to find the ones they’re looking for’ (Google Books n.d., n.p.). Google approached the Books project with a decidedly engineering-based mindset. From the start, the primary obstacles to the creation of a massive, keyword-searchable collection of digital books were perceived as technological. The company needed, first and foremost, to overcome then-current methods for digitizing books. These methods not only risked damaging books in the scanning process, they had proven limited in their ability to handle the irregularities of print books, especially older texts. Further, in order for modern Optical Character Recognition (OCR) software (i.e., software that scans physical texts to identify and convert characters like individual letters into digital form) to work, book pages need to be relatively flat; however, the physical reality of books and their bindings makes flat pages difficult. Previous methods for scanning had resorted to using glass plates to press pages of books flat or tearing out books’ bindings altogether. Given these constraints, one of the driving questions asked early on—’how long would it take to digitally scan every book in the world?’—neatly betrayed the company’s engineering-based commitments (Google Books n.d.). Notably, professionals at the University of Michigan estimated that scanning the entire university library collection would take 1,000 years, while Larry Page insisted it could be done in six—a technical breakthrough, indeed (Coleman 2006, 264). To accomplish this task, Google developed a method for streamlining the scanning process by relying on infrared cameras to detect and digitize the shape and angle of a book, allowing the OCR software to adjust for these dimensions and more accurately read the text on a given page (Clements, 2009). This innovation not only opened up the possibility of Google Books as the 20 million plus volume collection we know today, but also considerably sped up the scanning process by eliminating the need to physically flatten pages. However, Google Books required more than just engineering savvy—it also needed content. Initially, the company sought support from publishers willing to contribute in-print books for scanning (Newman 2011; Grimmelman 2009). However, Google’s collection did not start to rapidly expand until 2004, through partnerships with the New York Public Library and libraries at the University of Michigan, Harvard, Oxford, and Stanford (Google, Inc. 2004). The ‘Google Print’ Library Project (as it was then called) held more promise than partnerships with publishers, since it afforded them access to more than 15 million titles with only a handful of partnerships, compared to just hundreds of titles made available by thousands of publishers (Newman 2011, 5). In 2005, Google Print was renamed Google Books in order to better communicate the initiative’s mission to the public (Google, Inc., 2005). (For a comprehensive history of the Books project, see: Jones 2014). While the Library Project rapidly expanded Google’s collection, it was perceived as a potential threat to the copyright interests of authors and publishers. Interest groups and publishers argued that Google’s development of a vast archive of library collections for commercial benefit violated copyright law, and various lawsuits were filed against the company (Newman 2011; Samuelson 2009; Grimmelmann 2009). Google and others, meanwhile, maintained that the company’s scanning efforts were covered by fair use (e.g., von Lohmann, 2005). However, as none of the lawsuits forced Google Books offline, the project was able to move forward despite litigation. During that time, Google Books failed to have the wholly transformative impact on the publishing industry anticipated by proponents and critics alike. Its preview and ‘snippet’ mechanisms, for example, have effectively prevented the service from facilitating widespread copyright violation by limiting the total amount of access a user has to in-copyright texts in the archive. Eventually, Google Books settled into the broader context of the Web. As Grimmelmann (2013) summarizes, ‘what was once viewed almost as science fiction has become part of our daily reality— everyone, it seems, has used Google Books…’ (n.p.). This everyday utility of Google Books proved central to the November 2013 and October 2015 rulings that Google’s book scanning efforts are protected by fair use. In the 2013 ruling, Judge Chin argued that the platform ‘expands access’ to books, offers new possibilities for digital and historical research, as well as increasing materials available disabled persons (as with text-to-speech capabilities for digitized text) (Author’s Guild v. Google, Inc. 2013, 9-12). Ultimately, Judge Chin affirmed the optimism of the project’s biggest proponents by asserting that ‘indeed, all society benefits’ (Author’s Guild v. Google, Inc. 2013, 26). Judge Chin’s ruling was later re-affirmed by 2nd Circuit Court of Appeals (Author’s Guild v. Google, Inc. 2015). Understanding Google Books: Dominant and Obscured Narratives The preceding discussion of Google Books sketches certain dominant features of the project’s narrative that help to identify Google’s overarching ideology of access. Overall, the story of Google Books tends toward the roughly chronological and teleological, as told in the preceding section and elsewhere (for example: Google Books n.d.). This sort of narrative foregrounds what the project ‘does’ from an aspirational standpoint: through the power of engineering, Google Books overcomes technological obstacles and enables a heightened egalitarianism of information through the widespread searchability of digitized versions of library books. Judge Chin’s 2013 ruling builds on this narrative, highlighting the broad role of fair use in enabling innovative digital information initiatives for both private and public benefit. When attending to normative dimensions of information systems, however, it is important to pay attention to the types of narratives being constructed (Star 1999, 384). Dominant narratives often work to prioritize some issues, values, and stakeholders while obscuring others. For example, understanding Google’s choice to partner with publishers foregrounds political and economic considerations of information control and intellectual property, while the library partner program highlights the struggle to balance efficiency (libraries had more to offer Google than publishers in terms of volume) with legal concerns (potential copyright infringement). Critics of the project extend this narrative by focusing on the same issues of control and intellectual property (see, for example: Grimmelmann 2010; Vaidyanathan 2011; Zimmer 2012). Overall, the dominant narrative presents a more-or-less unified ideology, either in line with or opposed to Google’s—to borrow language from Star (1999)—’presumably monolithic agenda’ (385) to overcome technical hurdles and reshape information policy in its efforts to organize and make accessible the world’s information. In view of these foregrounded themes and values, we identify Google’s ‘ideology of access’ as part of a broader ideology of information technology. According to Birdsall (1997), an ideology of information technology is ‘a conjunction of neo-conservative politics, laissez-faire free market economic values, and technological determinism,’ the logic of which transforms citizens into consumers and information into a commodity to be bought and sold in open and competitive markets (54-55). Waller (2009), for example, has shown how the Books project betrays Google’s conception of information as only valuable insofar as it can be harnessed for marketing purposes. In addition, Agre’s (1995) discussion of ideologies that produce particular conceptions of ‘information’ helps us to further see how, for Google, access depends, in part, on a framework of information as an explicit and commodifiable good (especially as discussed in Waller, 2009). Finally, Google’s insistence on a technologically rational notion of universal access further trades on ideas of the so-called ‘Californian ideology’ typical of Silicon Valley companies and entrepreneurs that tout cultural cachet and hype the liberating potential of information technology (Barbrook & Cameron, 1996). The commitment to Google’s scanning technology as liberatory is particularly evident in the moral justifications employed by Schmidt, Coleman, and others. Google’s ideology of access is a technorationalist one, centered on distributive notions of access, that is, the idea that the presence of resources, made fundamentally discoverable through an uncomplicated search interface, constitutes access, full stop. The pervasiveness of this idea—of universal access as both liberatory and a technical problem to be solved—speaks to the discursive power wielded by technological solutions in our post-Enlightenment world, where ‘the pursuit of technology and science’ is synonymous with ‘human betterment…and material prosperity’ (Smith 1994, 3). However, critics since Rousseau have challenged this straightforward relationship between technology and progress, emphasizing the ways in which technology can have both positive and negative effects (see, in particular: Mumford, 1964; Winner, 1986). Notably, French theorist Jacques Ellul (2003) argued that human beings, in order to engage technological systems and artifacts, modify their value systems to be consistent with technological ideals (rather than develop technological systems in line with human ideals). In turn, technology becomes ‘the creative force of new values, of new ethics’ (Ellul 2003, 396). Common to these critiques is a rejection of the idea that technology is value-neutral. Rather, technological systems and artifacts exhibit value systems and ideals that exert some type of influence on the value systems and ideals of the societies within which they are embedded. Consequently, the social meanings we ascribe to technology and the rationality inscribed in the design of technological systems are not mutually exclusive (Feenberg, 2003, 608). In setting out a feminist definition of technology and society, Bush (2009) describes technology as encompassing all of ‘the resources, tools, processes, personnel, and systems developed to perform tasks and create immediate particular and personal and/or competitive advantages in a given ecological, economic, and social context’ (121). Wajcman (2004) further describes technological systems as ‘never merely technical,’ since ‘their real-world functioning has technical, economic, organizational, political, and even cultural elements’ (35). Following Bush and Wajcman, we view Google Books not as an emancipatory technical solution, but as an ideologically-driven system that organizes and makes possible certain technical, organizational, and political relationships while foreclosing or obscuring others. Surfacing a Feminist Ideology of Access Through Librarianship Like any ideology, Google’s ideology of access presents access to information as a natural or given category rather than as a concept contingent upon the institutions, structures, and values that permit access to information in practice. If we return to Eric Schmidt’s vision of Google Books’ potential and again ‘imagine the cultural impact of putting tens of millions of previously inaccessible volumes into one vast index, every word of which is searchable by anyone, rich and poor, urban and rural, First World and Third, en toute langue—and all, of course, entirely for free’ (Schmidt 2005, para. 9), we can see how Schmidt’s professional experience and value systems permit an emphasis on certain dimensions of access (cost, searchability) while disregarding others (user-end technological limitations, information literacy skills, lack of full-text availability). Following Star and Ruhleder’s (1996) definition of infrastructure, Google Books is both shaping and shaped by communities of practice; its scanning initiative is informed by partner libraries and, in turn, informs and overcomes the localized practices of these libraries to make their collections ‘universally accessible.’ Importantly, this process of overcoming localized practices includes removing collections of books from contexts traditionally informed by gendered work and subjecting them to the technical rationality of Google. Building on this, we can emphasize—borrowing from Agre (1995)—that the problem of access is ‘an object of certain professional ideologies’ that ‘cannot be understood except through the practices within which [they are] constructed by the members of those professions in their work’ (225). In the case of Google Books, this means that if we reconsider the project not as distinct from—but continuous with—the past and current work of women in the form of librarians and other library workers, we will arrive at a different and necessary understanding of the way that Google Books participates in the construction and restriction of the meaning of access. Librarians have constructed a markedly different ideology of access from Google’s. In library philosophy and practice, access to information is understood as a complex, considered, local endeavor, grounded in professional practice that privileges notions of service without profit motive, answering as exclusively to user needs as possible. In her germinal book Librarianship: The Erosion of a Woman’s Profession, Roma Harris argues that librarianship’s values are centered around service, community, and an ethic of care (Harris 1992).  This value system is a gendered phenomenon and requires a discussion of the gendered nature of the profession itself—especially as it has been theorized and practiced since the end of the 19th century in North America. Historically, libraries have played an important role as ‘place’ (Weigand 2003, viii). Within this place, librarians do what is generally thought of as women’s work, engaging in tasks that we associate with paid and unpaid feminized labor. Mary Ritter Beard, writing in 1915, includes librarians in her survey of ‘the labors of women for civic improvement of all kinds’ (Beard 1972, v). Though she devotes only a small portion of her book to librarianship, Beard refers to librarians as ‘social workers,’ ‘educators,’ and ‘physicians of the mind and body’ (Beard 1972, 43). Olson and Ritchie (2006) further demonstrate this professional commitment to serving broader civic and social interests, noting that ‘the transfer of feminine gifts from the private to the public women’s sphere – gifts such as service to others and ability with children’ has been evident in the literature as a thematic underpinning of librarianship for over a century (Olson and Ritchie 2006, xiii). Similarly, Passet (1994) has written at length about the idea of ‘library spirit’ and about the civilizing influence that female librarians were thought to bring to the western United States in the early 20th century. These seemingly positive contributions of librarians engaging in gendered labor are not without controversy. The librarian stereotype is repeatedly reproduced in popular culture. From Mary Hatch in It’s a Wonderful Life to Irma Pince in the Harry Potter series to an unnamed librarian in a My Morning Jacket song, we have a clear cultural need for the stereotype of a taciturn, shushing, repressing and repressed woman. In ‘Power, Knowledge, and Fear: Feminism, Foucault, and the Stereotype of the Female Librarian,’ Radford and Radford (1997) use Foucault’s theories about power and knowledge to argue that the stereotypical image of the female librarian is a function of the larger culture grappling with its anxiety about powerful, knowledgeable women who do not conform to other culturally-produced images of women. In their content analysis of New York Times obituaries of librarians from 1977 until 2002, Juris Dilevko and Lisa Gottlieb (2007) note a bias toward male librarians (a full 63% of the obituaries are for male librarians, despite Census data from the same period indicating that the profession was 80 – 85% women, a statistic that remains true today) (United States Census Bureau 2011). They also note an emphasis on high-status librarianship, including working with famous people or collections and in well-known institutions, despite the fact that most librarians do not do this kind of work. They write that this mismatch between the obituaries and the realities of the profession suggest a disregard for what they call ‘small librarianship’ – a service orientation driven by helpfulness and close contact with individual patrons (176). This gendered history and our attendant anxiety is vital for understanding the context of the collections upon which Google Books is built. Like most other library practices, access is framed by the service and care-focused orientation that underpins the entire profession. Harris (1992) characterizes this sort of service as a kind of democratic professionalism, in which practitioners do not make prescriptive assertions, but use specialized knowledge and skills to assist patrons in discovering their information needs. Dilevko and Gottlieb (2007) build on Harris’ interpretation, writing that librarianship itself is increasingly divided about being perceived in this way. They write, ‘One consequence of this is that, in an attempt to enhance the overall image of the profession, undue emphasis has been placed on moving librarianship in directions that lead to positive assessments and images… and a concomitant neglect of those aspects of librarianship that focus on small daily acts that assume extraordinary meaning in the lives of countless patrons’ (176). This conflict creates space into which an entity like Google Books can move. Discussion Just as processes of professionalization pushed women out of computing professions starting in the 1970s and most markedly in the 1980s (Misa 2010), moving books out of the library and onto Google’s servers works to obscure the professional contributions made by women in information technology. By extension, obscuring these contributions also obscures the professional ideologies which gave rise to them, including libraries’ community-oriented, care, and service-centered ideology of access. We can surface this ideology, however, through multiple examples from contemporary library practice. Google’s vision of information access, manifest in both its Books project and its search engine, does not account for the need to educate users in information seeking and evaluation, instead addressing these difficulties with a simplified interface and results ranking that attempts interpretive work to understand an individual user’s needs. While Google insists on technological marvel as a solution to a complex problem, librarians such as those associated with the ERIAL (Ethnographic Research in Illinois Academic Libraries) Project report that ‘the majority of students – of all levels – who participated in this study exhibited significant difficulties that ranged across nearly every aspect of the search process’ (Duke and Asher 73). Contrary to Google’s repeated assertions, their notion of universal access does not mean access for all. Education, as we have just noted, imposes a considerable barrier not accounted for in Google’s ideology, as do barriers that do not account for community needs, geographic or cultural. We can look beyond the relatively narrow focus of the Books project to understand how far-reaching the implications of this ideology can become. Large-scale information communication technology companies like Google have repeatedly failed to appropriately respond in the face of ‘real name’ policies that undermine the ability of communities of potential users, like transgender people or domestic abuse survivors, to access information (boyd 2012). Google’s notion of universal accessibility also fails to acknowledge varying levels of access to ready and reliable ICT infrastructure across the globe. Significant global disparities in internet availability, cost, and speed (International Telecommunications Union 2015), low or nonexistent digital literacies and skills (Shapiro 2014), and situated and contextual re-interpretations of technology by local communities (Ames, 2016) reveal  Schmidt’s arguments  for the Books project transcending social class and geography as distant and misguided. Libraries specifically seek to affirm and reaffirm access in instances where a user’s age, sexual orientation, or gender presentation might create cause for challenges to materials or practices in an individual community. In sharp contrast to Google’s universalized ideology of access that flattens or tries to make irrelevant such embodied differences, the American Library Association’s Library Bill of Rights is disseminated with interpretive documents on, among many subjects, access to digital materials for specific groups such as minors and those who may encounter obstacles on the basis of sex, sexuality, and gender presentation (American Library Association, 2015). The word ‘access’ is not used in the Library Bill of Rights itself, but these interpretive documents deploy it, making the meaning of the word in a library context clear. Access is situated as a process affected by medium, locality, and the demographic realities of individual users. In these documents, access is also not synonymous with information technology. These interpretive documents make assertions that include contact with and support from librarians part of the spectrum of library access. Moreover, it is stressed that access for all library users, when affirming the rights of minors and sexual minorities, should be free. Conclusion Libraries, like Google, stake their reputation on connecting people to the information that they need. The difference in how this is done by libraries versus how it is done by Google is radical and driven by the contextual distinctions in which each infrastructure frames its ideal notion of access. The Books project can only be construed as a solution to the problem of access to information with the support of an ideology that permits it to be perceived as such. Just as Feenberg (2003) once showed how the Fordist assembly line is only understandable as ‘progress’ within the logic of capitalism and technological rationality, Google Books is only ‘beneficial’ (to borrow Judge Chin’s description) when framed by an ideological commitment to values of universality, efficiency, and technological rationality. Local or individual needs and contextual understandings of access  less urgent in the face of a powerful technological solution that provides simple, broad, and commercializable  access to information (see also: Hoffmann 2016). Against the simplicity and universality of Google, librarians offer complex, localized engagement with information. By accepting an uncomplicated narrative of the Books project as benefiting all society, as if society was a homogeneous monolith with universal, uniform needs, we ultimately accept Google’s ideology of access, pushing the work and values of librarians aside, further marginalizing the role of librarians in wider cultural conversations about information. This dismissal leads to the tragic loss of ways of thinking about and realizing access that resist and reject Google’s vision. Anna Lauren Hoffmann is a postdoctoral researcher and instructor at the School of Information, University of California, Berkeley. 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World Digital Library. n.d. ‘About the World Digital Library.’ Accessed August 8, 2015. http://www.wdl.org/en/about/ Zimmer, Michael. 2012. ‘The Ethical (Re)Design of the Google Books Project.’ iConference ’12: Proceedings of the 2012 iConference, 363-369. —CITATION— Hoffmann, A. L. Bloom, R. (2016) Digitizing Books, Obscuring Women’s Work: Google Books, Librarians, and Ideologies of Access. Ada: A Journal of Gender, New Media, and Technology, No.9. doi:10.7264/N3BC3WTH This article has been openly peer reviewed at Ada Review. This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License. accessbook digitizationGoogle bookslibrarianshippeer reviewedwomen's work Anna Lauren Hoffmann Anna Lauren Hoffmann is a postdoctoral researcher and instructor at the School of Information, University of California, Berkeley. Raina Bloom Raina Bloom is an Academic Librarian in reference and instruction at College Library, University of Wisconsin, Madison. Post navigation NextEditing Diversity In: Reading Diversity Discourses on WikipediaPreviousBina48: Gender, Race, and Queer Artificial Life Leave a Reply Cancel reply Your email address will not be published. Required fields are marked *Comment Name * Email * Website Notify me of follow-up comments by email. Notify me of n

Both  strategies are part of what, following the Encyclopedie of Diderot and D’Alembert, [scalar note] we may call a digital “simulation” of analogue experiences and observations practised in Venice in the eighteenth century: the equivalent of thought-experiments, aided by our vision technology. Indeed, the word “experience” undergoes a meaningful semantic shift, in modern times: if once, as the Encyclopedie states, it indicated “the knowledge acquired through a long life, combined with the reflections made on what one has seen, and on the good and bad that has happened to us,” it now seems to point at something we “experience” almost momentarily. In the eighteenth century, this term was connected to both “experiment” and travel. Again the Encyclopedie: “In Physics the word ‘experiment’ [the word used in French is also ‘expérience’] is used to describe tests that are conducted to discover the different processes and the mechanism of nature.” And travel is “a highly profitable way of gaining experience, but to derive this benefit, one must travel with an observant mind.” Our virtual travels into early modern Venetian virtual reality avail themselves of both images and words and, through their combination, aim to provide both the “experience” and the “observation” that optical devices such as the mondo nuovo and the magic lantern made possible, testing both our reason and our imagination.

In exposing threats to the environment and finding solutions we have no permanent allies or adversaries. We ensure our financial independence from political or commercial interests.”

Especially problematic is the fact Yosef is not studying Torah. Inaccordance with Haredi values, Rabbi Dov said that the fact that Yosefwas not steeped in learning created a dangerous situation

as we are 63:42 told by gossin in 1582

is it’s like 62:34 differencing in a coat of arms so in 62:36 fact there’s Walter Raleigh’s pulse as 62:38 we were used to spelling and that was 62:40 what his great grandfather when his 62:41 great grandfather died he moved up a 62:43 line

we were also told that a 65:20 man called Camden says over here that 65:22 William Shakespeare was a great writer 65:24 and over here calls him the player very 65:26 important he obviously sees them as two 65:28 different people I’m sure we’re all 65:29 aware here that there’s an extremely 65:31 famous act in Canada who goes by the 65:34 name of Graham Greene who suggested here 65:36 I think as I understand it unclear is 65:38 that if I write over here about Graham 65:40 Greene jolly interesting Canadian actor 65:42 and then I write over here about the 65:44 English novelist the assumption is that 65:45 I assume the Graham Greene the Canadian 65:48 actor wrote our man in Havana well 65:50 that’s obviously nonsense

we shall m the end find un-conscious, inborn expectations

fixing the number of professors they require, which we think should at present, be ten, limiting

Encouraged therefore by the sentiments of the Legislature, manifested in this statute, we present the following tabular statement of the branches of learning which we think should be taught in the University, forming them into groups, each of which are within the powers of a single professor. I Languages Antient Latin V Physics or Natural Philosophy Greek Chemistry Hebrew Mineralogy II Languages Modern French VI Botany Spanish Zoology Italian VII Anatomy German Medicine Anglo-Saxon VIII Government III Mathematics Pure Algebra Political economy Fluxions Law of Nature & Nations Geometry elemental History (being interwoven with Politics & Law[)] Transcendental IX Law Municipal Architecture X Ideology Military General grammar Naval Ethics IV Physics-Mathematics Mechanics Rhetoric Statics Belle Lettres & the fine arts Dynamics Pneumatics Acoustics Optics Astronomy Geography * * Some of the terms used in this table being subject to a difference of acceptation, it is proper to define the meaning and comprehension intended to be given them here.

the incalculable advantage of training up able counsellors to administer the affairs of our Country in all its departments, Legislative, Executive, and Judiciary, and to bear their proper share in the councils of Our National Government; nothing, more than education, adorning the prosperity, the power and the happiness of a nation.

Some good men, and even of respectable information, consider the learned sciences as useless acquirements; some think that they do not better the condition of men; and others that education like private & individual concerns, should be left to private & individual effort; not reflecting that an establishment, embracing all the sciences which may be useful & even necessary in the various vocations of life, with the buildings & apparatus belonging to each, are far beyond the reach of individual means, & must either derive existence from public patronage or not exist at all. This would leave us then without those callings which depend on education, or send us to other countries, to seek the instruction they require

In this enquiry they supposed that the governing considerations should be the healthiness of the site, the fertility of the neighbouring country, and it’s centrality to the white population of the whole state

two to four apartments for the accommodation of a professor and his family

The advantages of this plan are, greater security against fire & infection; tranquillity & comfort to the Professors, and their families thus insulated; retirement to the Students, and the admission of enlargement to any degree to which the institution may extend in future times.

4. The best mode of government for youth in large collections, is certainly a desideratum not yet attained with us. It may well be questioned whether fear, after a certain age, is the motive to which we should have ordinary recourse. The human character is susceptible of other incitements to correct conduct, more worthy of employ, and of better effect. Pride of character, laudable ambition, & moral dispositions are innate correctives of the indiscretions of that lively age; and when strengthened by habitual appeal & exercise, have a happier effect on future character, than the degrading motive of fear; hardening them to disgrace, to corporal punishments, and servile humiliations, cannot be the best process for producing erect character. The affectionate deportment between father & son offers, in truth, the best example for that of tutor & pupil;

smooth/rough shiny/dull hot/cold soft/hard light/dark transparent/opaque up/down in/out sta bility/insta bili ty torwa rd/backwanl vertical/horizontal straight/curved or crooked light/heavy chin/thick dean/dirty

Simply because a certain technology is available does not always mean it should be implemented. As citizens of the 21st century, we are constantly encountering new technology, in the medical field especially, and we are constantly wrangling with the ethics of such technologies. Predictive genetic testing is an issue that may become vital in many aspects of our society, such as policy, insurance, and medicine, and if we continue to think about these issues in binary terms, we run the risk of making enormously uninformed decisions. An approach to genetic testing that takes into consideration all of the possible impacts, not just on the patients themselves but on current and future family members, will present the greatest probability of success, whether that refers to a patient coping with a condition or a doctor figuring out an approach to tackling it.

may help integrate, for human understanding, bodies of material so diversely connected that they could not be untangled by the unaided mind. For both logistic and psychological reasons it should be an important adjunct to imaginative, integrating and creative enterprises. It is useful where relationships are unclear; where contingencies and tasks are undefined and unpredictable; where the structures or final outcome it must represent are not yet folly known; where we do not know the file's ultimate arrangement; where we do not know what parts of the file are most important; or where things are in permanent and unpredictable flux. Perhaps this includes more places than we think. And perhaps here, as in biology, the only ultimate structure is change itself.

The power of nominating to the senate, and the power of appointing the person nominated, are political powers, to be exercised by the President according to his own discretion. When he has made an appointment, he has exercised his whole power, and his discretion has been completely applied to the case. If, by law, the officer be removable at the will of the President, then a new appointment may be immediately made, and the rights of the officer are terminated. But as a fact which has existed cannot be made never to have existed, the appointment cannot be annihilated; and consequently if the officer is by law not removable at the will of the President; the rights he has acquired are protected by the law, and are not resumeable by the President. They cannot be extinguished by executive authority, and he has the privilege of asserting them in like manner as if they had been derived from any other source.

e development of a vast mass communications industry, concerned in the main neither with the true nor the false, but with the unreal, the more or less totally irrelevant. In a word, they failed to take into account man's almost infinite appetite for distractions.

2d. The board having thus agreed on a proper site for the University to be reported to the legislature, proceeded to the second of the duties assigned to them, that of proposing a plan for its buildings; and they are of opinion that it should consist of distinct houses or pavilions, arranged at proper distances on each side of a lawn of a proper breadth, & of indefinite extent in one direction at least, in each of which should be a lecturing room with from two to four apartments for the accommodation of a professor and his family: that these pavilions should be united by a range of Dormitories, sufficient each for the accommodation of two students only, this provision being deemed advantageous to morals, to order, & to uninterrupted study; and that a passage of some kind under cover from the weather should give a communication along the whole range. It is supposed that such pavilions on an average of the larger & smaller will cost each about $5,000; each dormitory about $350, and Hotels of a single room for a Refectory, & two rooms for the tenant necessary for dieting the students will cost about $3.500 each. The number of these pavilions will depend on the number of Professors, and that of the Dormitories & Hotels on the number of students to be lodged & dieted. The advantages of this plan are, greater security against fire & infection; tranquillity & comfort to the Professors, and their families thus insulated; retirement to the Students, and the admission of enlargement to any degree to which the institution may extend in future times. It is supposed probable that a building of somewhat more size in the middle of the grounds may be called for in time, in which may be rooms for religious worship under such impartial regulations as the visitors shall prescribe, for public examinations, for a Library, for the schools of music, drawing, and other associated purposes.

the elements of medical science may be taught, with a history & explanations of all it’s successive theories from Hippocrates to the present day

Some good men, and even of respectable information, consider the learned sciences as useless acquirements; some think that they do not better the condition of men; and others that education like private & individual concerns, should be left to private & individual effort; not reflecting that an establishment, embracing all the sciences which may be useful & even necessary in the various vocations of life, with the buildings & apparatus belonging to each, are far beyond the reach of individual means, & must either derive existence from public patronage or not exist at all. This would leave us then without those callings which depend on education, or send us to other countries, to seek the instruction they require.

’Tis evident, that all the sciences have a relation, greater or less, to human nature; and that however wide any of them may seem to run from it, they still return back by one passage or another. Even Mathematics, Natural Philosophy, and Natural Religion, are in some measure dependent on the science of Man; since they lie under the cognizance of men, and are judged of by their powers and faculties.

Am I learning less by not reading the whole book? Am I learning more by reading a broad range of short articles? These are some of the issues Carr and Gleick are trying to figure out. How does the internet impact and alter the process of collecting and learning new information?

I might be driven to sell your love for peace, Or trade the memory of this night for food. It well may be. I do not think I would.

In many classrooms. teachers will not ho multilingual or roprosont diverse c.ulturns, nor will thoy have rccoived any special professional preparation lo work with linguislic diversily (R11hi11stoi11-Avila, 2006). In addilion, attention to tlw linguislic and cull11ral backgrounds of tho children may be limilml and not inrorporallid into llw classroom curriculum.

"We reject the racism and violence of white nationalists like the ones acting out in Charlottesville. Everyone in leadership must speak out.

It is difficult for me to talk with you about animals, for I have learned one thing, under the guidance of reason, from Arabic teachers; but you, captivated by a show of authority, are led around by a halter. For what should we call authority but a halter?

She could not finish the generous effusion. Her conscience stopt her in the middle, but Edmund was satisfied.

But if we think -- suppose Missouri had a policy that it has today, very recently, and we were asked to grant cert in this case.

Any illness constitutes a disruption, a discontinuance of an ongoing life(Bury 1982). The current of daily life is obstructed, perhaps blocked alto-gether. Illness may revise our conceptions of what is changeable, and wemay be forced to change the premises upon which we plan and evaluateour lives (Charmaz 1992).

So, how might colleges and universities shape curricula to support and inspire the imaginations that students need? Here’s one idea. Suppose that when students matriculate, they are assigned their own web servers — not 1GB folders in the institution’s web space but honest-to-goodness virtualized web servers of the kind available for $7.99 a month from a variety of hosting services, with built-in affordances ranging from database maintenance to web analytics. As part of the first-year orientation, each student would pick a domain name. Over the course of the first year, in a set of lab seminars facilitated by instructional technologists, librarians, and faculty advisors from across the curriculum, students would build out their digital presences in an environment made of the medium of the web itself. They would experiment with server management tools via graphical user interfaces such as cPanel or other commodity equivalents. They would install scripts with one-click installers such as SimpleScripts. They would play with wikis and blogs; they would tinker and begin to assemble a platform to support their publishing, their archiving, their importing and exporting, their internal and external information connections. They would become, in myriad small but important ways, system administrators for their own digital lives.3 In short, students would build a personal cyberinfrastructure, one they would continue to modify and extend throughout their college career — and beyond.

nces.) I have traced twenty-six hymns to authors by locating concordances in eighteenth-century sources.4 While we may assume that Allen's congregation used the same tunes as did other congregations in singing the well-known hymns-such as those written by Isaac Watts, for example, or Charles Wesley-it seems obvious that in some instances the Bethelites must have com- posed their own melodies or adapted popular street tunes to their purposes.

.

These observations led to further consideration of howdifferent data collection methodologies and varioussources of bias may influence the story that participantstell in a research interview, and how closely ourresearch findings reflect the‘‘true’’nature of behav-iors in our study populations

. We present a case studythat illustrates challenges and potential solutions tomaximize data validity and describe these behaviorsand experiences as closely as possible.

The arts of a civiliza- tion belong to the executive and articulating classes, a sort of partial culture superimposed on everyday reality and partly fused with it. Within Indian civilization there are not only the high arts of music and dance officially maintained and underpinned by Sanskrit documents, but folk arts and provincial arts of all sorts, just as there are in ours. They abound and flourish. But when as aestheticians we talk about art in gen- eral it is not mostly these we have in mind. We often tend to view them essentially in the same way as we view what we might call "primitive" art of other cultures-except that we do not typ- ically think of them as "exotic." We may not un- derstand them or relate them to "art," but this lack of relation is not thematic in our attitude to them, not a kind of glamour so much as a sort of quaint charm

they are crimes against nature, against those laws which are perceived to be inscribed directly on the human heart and which link families and generations

“Well, Mr. Flood, we have the harvest moon Again, and we may not have many more;

anything left out of descrip-tion is lost to interpretation forever.

Countless deductions of this kind suggest themselves. The process operates, in fact, so quickly that its effects are naturalized, come to seem true by definition rather than as evidence of meaningful inscription or con-struction.

When we study an object, formalizing our observations in language, we generate a set of carefully selected nouns, adjectives, adverbs, prepositions, and verbs which effectively determine the bounds of possible interpreta-tion.

is that a free library occupies the first place, provided the community will accept and maintain it as a public institution, as much a part of the city property as its public schools, and, indeed, an adjunct to these.

Computers that are “awake” and superhumanly intelligent may be developed. (To date, there has been much controversy as to whether we can create human equivalence in a machine.

these people have not the use of navigation, whereby we may traffic as other nations, that are civilized, use to do, yet do they barter for such commodities as they have, and have a kind of beads

The secon d question w as w hether or notthe developm ent o f stages in children’s think ing couldbe accelerated by practice, training, an d exercise inperception an d memory. Piaget’s response follow s:

shall provide equal but separate

If, however, we shift our attention from the prison, per­ceived as an isolated institution, to the set of relationships that comprise the prison industrial complex, it may be easi­er to think about alternatives. In other words, a more com­plicated framework may yield more options than if we sim­ply attempt to discover a single substitute for the prison sys­tem. The first step, then, would be to let go of the desire to discover one single alternative system of punishment that would occupy the same footprint as the prison system.

How do we begin to rectify this imbalance in history, the lack of exposure, source material, and recognition? Teal Triggs and Sian Cook urge us, “We can no longer afford to be complacent as a profession, nor in our roles as design educators.” The surge of online design activity has provided many grass-roots projects, like Women’s Design + Research Unit (WD+RU), Graphic BirdWatching, Women of Graphic Design and Hall of Femmes as key tools for seeking out designers that may not otherwise be reported upon or featured on the stages of design conferences. The WD+RU Project team believes that certain projects like these serve as “an educational platform; establishing a space for our future role models and interesting new design discourses. The resource is also about engagement with contemporary issues. WoGD forms a virtual community of women designers who are working internationally; a platform for bringing designers together in knowledge exchange.” Additionally, conferences or discussion panels aimed at this specific topic would be an additional step on the path to better understanding why we need to talk about women in design. Recently, the Design Culture Salon held a seminar in London asking the question, “What are the gender politics of contemporary design practice?” The panel was made up of only women, though not intentionally, and brought together both educators and designers of diverse disciplines and age groups.

Finally, any up vote based system is just going to push easy to understand, rather than good, papers up to the top.

The Comparison to Continental Coverage I agree completely that there are many Continental figures who are understudied in US philosophy departments. However, consider the following figures. The PRG ranks 13 schools that have expertise in "20th Century Continental philosophy." An additional 11 schools are unranked but "recommended for consideration by the Advisory Board," for a total of 24. (http://www.philosophicalgourmet.com/breakdown/breakdown29.asp) In the area of "19th Century Continental Philosophy," the PRG ranks 20 programs, and lists an additional 4 programs as "recommended," for a total of 24. (http://www.philosophicalgourmet.com/breakdown/breakdown27.asp) Now let's turn to Chinese philosophy: the programs are not ranked but simply grouped, "due to the small number of evaluators." Eight programs are "grouped," and an additional 5 are "recommended," for a total of 13. (http://www.philosophicalgourmet.com/breakdown/breakdown33.asp) If the numerical disparity between the coverage of Continental and Chinese philosophy is not immediately obvious, consider these additional facts. Chinese philosophy is a tradition that is over two millennia long, and is as diverse as all of the Western tradition. So the PRG lists 24 doctoral programs as at least recommended in 19th century Continental philosophy, 24 at least recommended in 20th century Continental philosophy, and 13 at least recommended in all two thousand five hundred years of Chinese philosophy. Hmm. When we consider Indian philosophy...oh, there is no ranking for that at all. So, yes, Continental philosophy is understudied in the US. But it is worse in Chinese and Indian philosophy. The Quality Argument In an interview done by Skye Cleary and forthcoming in the APA Blog I make the following point. If someone tells me that Chinese philosophy (for example) is "not really philosophy" or is not sufficiently argumentative or "rational," I like to ask him: why he thinks that the Mohist state-of-nature argument to justify government authority is not philosophy? What does he make of Mengzi’s reductio ad absurdum against the claim that human nature is reducible to desires for food and sex? Why does he dismiss Zhuangzi’s version of the problem of the criterion? What is his opinion of Han Feizi’s argument that political institutions must be designed so that they do not depend upon the virtue of political agents? What does he think of Zongmi’s argument that reality must fundamentally be mental, because it is inexplicable how consciousness could arise from matter that was nonconscious? Why does he regard the Platonic dialogues as philosophical, yet dismiss Fazang’s dialogue in which he argues for and responds to objections against the claim that individuals are defined by their relationships to others? What is his opinion of Wang Yangming’s arguments for the claim that it is impossible to know what is good yet fail to do what is good? What does he make of Mou Zongsan’s critique of Kant, or Liu Shaoqi’s argument that Marxism is incoherent unless supplemented with a theory of individual ethical transformation? Of course, the answer to each question is that those who suggest that Chinese philosophies are irrational have never heard of any of these arguments because they do not bother to actually read them. Or, if they do bother to glance at them, they hold them to a higher standard of explicitness and clarity than they do Aristotle or Kant. (We are so used to reading Aristotle and Kant that we forget how unclear and unmotivated their claims will seem to someone who has not studied them in context, or with the guide of secondary sources and teachers.) Other arguments on this topic can be found in the excellent essays by *Eric Schwitzgebel, "Why Don't We Know Our Chinese Philosophy?" http://www.faculty.ucr.edu/~eschwitz/SchwitzAbs/NotKnowChinese.htm *Justin Tiwald, "A Case for Chinese Philosophy," http://c.ymcdn.com/sites/www.apaonline.org/resource/collection/2EAF6689-4B0D-4CCB-9DC6-FB926D8FF530/v08n1Asian.pdf The Diversity Card If anyone has any doubts about the role of implicit racism in maintaining the status quo in philosophy, I would invite her to read Eugene Park's essay, "Why I Left Academia: Philosophy’s Homogeneity Needs Rethinking" (http://www.huffingtonpost.com/hippo-reads/why-i-left-academia_b_5735320.html). Park was a doctoral student in a top-ranked philosophy department who was passionate about Western philosophy but also interested in exploring insights from non-Western philosophy. He was told that he should transfer to a program in "ethnic studies," where this approach would be more welcome. In the face of ethnocentrism like this, Park eventually dropped out. As Myisha Cherry and Eric Schwitgebel point out, philosophy has a diversity problem that is actually worse than that in other fields in the humanities, and it shows no signs of getting better. We must address issues of diversity if we wish for our field to survive in the future. (http://www.latimes.com/opinion/op-ed/la-oe-0306-schwitzgebel-cherry-philosophy-so-white-20160306-story.html) I agree that linking the call to study non-Western philosophy to issues of diversity will politicize it in ways that may lead to outcomes I would not prefer in an ideal world. Sadly, we are not in an ideal world. I and many others have been fighting with rational arguments for decades to try to get greater acceptance of non-Western philosophy into the curriculum. The rate of change has been glacial. Consequently, I increasingly think that the only way to effect change in philosophy is by appealing to students to mobilize and demand changes. For Moderate Change If philosophers want moderate, rational change, they can take simple steps. For one thing, the next time you have an opening, consider whether you need yet another person studying the philosophical traditions that grow out of Plato and Aristotle (both of whom I deeply, almost reverentially, admire). Wouldn't the field, and your students, be better served by someone teaching Indian, Chinese, or some other non-mainstream form of philosophy?

@media only screen and (-webkit-min-device-pixel-ratio: 2), only screen and (min--moz-device-pixel-ratio: 2), only screen and (-o-min-device-pixel-ratio: 2/1), only screen and (min-device-pixel-ratio: 2), only screen and (min-resolution: 192dpi), only screen and (min-resolution: 2dppx){ .rmq-c5ac8812{background-image: url(https://d31x7hvfv30ebb.cloudfront.net/prod/5e/53/d6330645836697dd573aaa167b24d5760c89-1187x564-square520.png) !important;}}Create and Publish a Powtoon AnimationYouth VoicesWill you:Use Powtoon to create an animated introduction to you! (See Powtoon Animation Slides 5 - 12.)Seven Clicks:Create an account/ Log in: powtoon.comCreate a New ProjectStart from a scratch template (edit)It will take a while to load – refresh if necessaryGive it a title (top left)Skip layout, choose background (do not use premium)Add 10 slidesUpload Media:Background: Choose a theme and color.Sound: Upload your MP3 file and choose background music. Adjust volume so that we can hear you clearly.Images: Find and upload images you annotated on your script.Use this checklist as you work on your animation. Check off the things you have already done.Powtoon Checklist:___ Script complete___ Audio file recorded and converted___ Introduction slide___ Sounds: Voiceover and background music___ Images: a combination of characters, objects, png images, and personal images.___ Text: I have a variety of text and effects timed with my voiceover.___ Each sentence in my voiceover has images and text to support it.___ Concluding slidePost Your Powtoon on Youth Voices:Copy the embed code from your Powtoon animationCreate a discussion on Youth Voices. Remember to add a Featured Image and a unique, great title.In Visual mode, paste your embed code, then remove the final </iframe> and replace the angle-brackets < ... > with flat parentheses [ ,,, ] See how.Choose the Category: Powtoon and publish!@media only screen and (-webkit-min-device-pixel-ratio: 2), only screen and (min--moz-device-pixel-ratio: 2), only screen and (-o-min-device-pixel-ratio: 2/1), only screen and (min-device-pixel-ratio: 2), only screen and (min-resolution: 192dpi), only screen and (min-resolution: 2dppx){ .rmq-41302c13{background-image: url(https://d31x7hvfv30ebb.cloudfront.net/prod/90/e2/90c0f6f14aa90b3ccceba9bca187d46b9f75-2048x1152-square520.jpg) !important;}}What is a Powtoon Animation?Youth VoicesWill you:Choose three Powtoon introductions to watch and comment on using Hypothes.is. (See the Powtoon Animation Slides, page 4.)Each time you annotate, consider using these sentence starters: I really liked learning that you… I like how you showed this by ….Use a tag to show us your best annotations.After you have annotated three Powtoon animations, linked above, add a specific, unique tag (e.g. "PowtoonComments") to your most thoughtful, inspired annotations.This will give you a URL that you can use to point others to your most thoughtful annotations about the Powtoon introductions. You can submit this URL as evidence for this XP, and your readers or evaluators will be able to click on that LINK and easily find your best annotation. Here's How to Submit One Link for Multiple Hypothes.is Annotations.@media only screen and (-webkit-min-device-pixel-ratio: 2), only screen and (min--moz-device-pixel-ratio: 2), only screen and (-o-min-device-pixel-ratio: 2/1), only screen and (min-device-pixel-ratio: 2), only screen and (min-resolution: 192dpi), only screen and (min-resolution: 2dppx){ .rmq-d42a1acb{background-image: url(https://d31x7hvfv30ebb.cloudfront.net/prod/e7/8a/173a9fc2ecf88c68ce9e6fd7b67a051ca7bf-775x547-square520.png) !important;}}Record Your Bio. Export the MP3. Embed it on Your Bio.Youth VoicesRecord your three-paragraph Bio on Audacity, on your phone, or by using Vocaroo or Online Voice Recorder.Use any method you have of getting an mp3 file of your voice onto your desktop (email it to yourself, download it..).Upload your mp3 into the media library on YouthVoices then embed it at the top of your Bio. Here are the steps you need to follow:Log inGo to the DashboardUpload New Media, and drag or upload you mp3 into the box that says Drop files here.Once it's up in the library, copy the URL.Embed it at the top of your Bio by typing this Wordpress shortcode at the top of your text in Visual mode: [audio mp3="http://www.youthvoices.live/wp-content/uploads/URfileName.mp3"][/audio]Save ChangesHere's a screencast (start at 3:30) about embedding on Youth Voices.@media only screen and (-webkit-min-device-pixel-ratio: 2), only screen and (min--moz-device-pixel-ratio: 2), only screen and (-o-min-device-pixel-ratio: 2/1), only screen and (min-device-pixel-ratio: 2), only screen and (min-resolution: 192dpi), only screen and (min-resolution: 2dppx){ .rmq-afd47984{background-image: url(https://d31x7hvfv30ebb.cloudfront.net/prod/c2/3e/92cfec6a93865f01895500172c935367a8cd-625x263-square260.png) !important;}}You, Immigration, and JusticeYouth VoicesWrite three paragraphs about yourself, using Google Docs.CHECK OUT THIS GUIDE FOR ELLS.Paragraph 1: Who are you?What's important to know about you? When were you born? Where have you lived?What do you like to do in and out of school? What are you particularly good at, and how did you get that way?  What are your plans for the future, and your dreams?Paragraph 2: How did immigration impact you?Write about the biggest ways in which your life changed when you immigrated. How did your family structure change?  Were these changes positive or negative?  How do you feel about the languages you speak?Paragraph 3: What is justice/injustice?Write about an incident where you experienced or witnessed an injustice.Where was it?  Who was involved?  What happened?  What was unfair about it?Once you have finished writing to the end of your first draft, READ YOUR BIO TO A FRIEND OR TWO AND TO YOUR TEACHER/MENTOR. Share the document with other youth and with your teacher/mentor. Ask them to write comments and make suggestions on your Google Document.Under the blue share button on Google Docs, make sure that you have made your Doc public and open to comments. Here's how.Make revisions, proofread, and spell check your Google Doc. @media only screen and (-webkit-min-device-pixel-ratio: 2), only screen and (min--moz-device-pixel-ratio: 2), only screen and (-o-min-device-pixel-ratio: 2/1), only screen and (min-device-pixel-ratio: 2), only screen and (min-resolution: 192dpi), only screen and (min-resolution: 2dppx){ .rmq-969359d9{background-image: url(https://d31x7hvfv30ebb.cloudfront.net/prod/d5/8a/2492566cfb8d836e32939cca3c66bc8857e7-2739x1556.jpeg) !important;}}Choosing a Goal for Stress ManagementYouth VoicesWill you:Choose a stress management technique that best fits into your lifestyle and daily schedule. Consider the following potential stress management techniques. (Find a more exhaustive list at WebMD). Choose one to research more thoroughly for yourself by annotating the resources you find online with hypothes.is:Physical exercise (i.e. yoga, walking, jogging, etc.)Listening to MusicMeditationBreathing Exercises (i.e. belly breathing, etc.)Other leisure activities (i.e. drawing, journaling, etc.)In determining which technique to FOCUS on, consider the following questions:Is the technique one you will stick with? Will you find it enjoyable enough? Why?Can you find time to fit this technique into your daily life? When might it fit into your day?What are some of the physiological benefits of the technique you have chosen?Once you have decided upon a technique, create a discussion post on Youth Voices.Share your stress management goal and the reasoning behind why the technique you've chosen is the best one for you.Refer to resources for examples. Include links to your Hypothes.is annotations for any resources you reference in your writing. (You can find the link to any of your annotations by clicking on the share symbol under your comment, then copy the link that is attached to that specific annotation.)Add Categories, including "Stress."@media only screen and (-webkit-min-device-pixel-ratio: 2), only screen and (min--moz-device-pixel-ratio: 2), only screen and (-o-min-device-pixel-ratio: 2/1), only screen and (min-device-pixel-ratio: 2), only screen and (min-resolution: 192dpi), only screen and (min-resolution: 2dppx){ .rmq-4f8eb8d0{background-image: url(https://d31x7hvfv30ebb.cloudfront.net/prod/41/6f/9cfb7e50bde85ecd69efa8d2ae856dac1c33-5000x3000-square520.jpg) !important;}}Stressors and Their EffectsYouth VoicesWill you:Watch these two short videos from TED Ed in NowComment:"How stress affects your body""How stress affects your brain"Both videos are in the same NowComment document, where you can watch without logging in. To comment or reply, log in and click on the specific times that you think are important.Here's what to write each time you stop the video: In the Comment box:What do you see and hear at this time stamp? (Summarize in your own words.) In the Additional Thoughts box:What makes this significant?How does it relate to you or something else you've read, seen, or heard?Considering the video content, write a discussion post on Youth Voices that includes the following:What are the stressors that impact your day-to-day life?How have you felt those stressors impact your body's physiology, your emotions, and your learning?What was interesting or surprising about the videos regarding the effects of stress and how it may impact your physiology and brain?Why might it be important to find healthy ways to manage your stress?(Optional) You might also add a link to a tag on NowComment that points to your three best comments. Here's How to Submit One Link for Multiple Comments on a NowComment DocumentHere's how to do it:Compose in Google Docs.Read your writing aloud to a group of peers, and ask for comments.Revise and make grammar and spelling corrections.Publish your writing as a Youth Voices discussion post. Please choose a few categories for your post (including "stress").@media only screen and (-webkit-min-device-pixel-ratio: 2), only screen and (min--moz-device-pixel-ratio: 2), only screen and (-o-min-device-pixel-ratio: 2/1), only screen and (min-device-pixel-ratio: 2), only screen and (min-resolution: 192dpi), only screen and (min-resolution: 2dppx){ .rmq-412918b6{background-image: url(https://d31x7hvfv30ebb.cloudfront.net/prod/46/11/b38eb5b9eef1541de47b1e92b40bfcd9a792-2991x1436-square520.jpg) !important;}}Researching the Physiological Effects of StressYouth VoicesWill you:Read and annotate the following articles using hypothes.is.from Harvard Health Publications, “Understanding the stress response” from the American Psychological Association, “Understanding chronic stress”One more credible article of your choice. Talk with your teacher or mentor about why you believe an article you have chosen is reliable and useful before you start annotating.Each time you annotate: Summarize the sentence or paragraph in your own words. Say why this is significant. Make a connection to something in your life or something you have read or seen elsewhere. As you read, be sure to highlight and annotate any of the following information:Definition(s) of stressEffect(s) of stress on the body's physiologyLong-term effect(s) of chronic stressSuggested stress management strategies and their benefits.Use tags to show us your best annotations. Here's how:After you have annotated the two articles linked above, plus another one, you need to add a specific, unique tag (e.g. "5beststress") to your five most thoughtful, inspired annotations about stress. This will give you a URL that you can use to point others to your five most thoughtful annotations about stress. You can submit this URL as evidence for this XP. Here are the steps for How to Submit One Link for Multiple Hypothes.is Annotations.@media only screen and (-webkit-min-device-pixel-ratio: 2), only screen and (min--moz-device-pixel-ratio: 2), only screen and (-o-min-device-pixel-ratio: 2/1), only screen and (min-device-pixel-ratio: 2), only screen and (min-resolution: 192dpi), only screen and (min-resolution: 2dppx){ .rmq-f345db6d{background-image: url(https://d31x7hvfv30ebb.cloudfront.net/prod/0c/80/e2434cf89fb6d6a71f3cddd3fe79cf802784-3723x2482.jpeg) !important;}}The Effects of Mindful Stress ManagementYouth VoicesConsider the stress management goal you created for yourself. Put your technique int

Experts in the area have argued that the most powerful visualizations are static images with clear legends and a clear point, although that may be changing with increasingly powerful interactive displays which give users impressive amounts of control over the data.

PUBLIC RUBRICS

Suppose it were Great Britain that had violated some compact of agreement with the General Government, what would be first done? In that case our Minister would be directed in the first instance to bring the matter to the attention of that Government, or a commissioner be sent to that country to open negotiations with her, ask for redress, and it would only be after argument and reason had been exhausted in vain that we would take the last resort of nations. That would be the course toward a foreign Government; and toward a member of this Confederacy I would recommend the same course. Let us not, therefore, act hastily or ill-temperedly in this matter. Let your Committee on the state of the Republic make out a bill of grievances; let it be sent by the Governor to those faithless States; and if reason and argument shall be tried in vain,—if all shall fail to induce them to return to their constitutional obligations, I would be for retaliatory measures, such as the Governor has suggested to you. 13 This mode of resistance in the Union is in our power. It might be effectual; and in the last resort we would be justified in the eyes of nations, not only in separating from them, but in using force. (A voice.—“ The argument is already exhausted.”) Some friend says that the argument is already exhausted. No, my friend, it is not. You have never called the attention of the Legislatures of those States to this subject that I am aware of. Nothing on this line has ever been done before this year. The attention of our own people has been called to the subject lately. Now, then, my recommendation to you would be this: In view of all these questions of difficulty, let a convention of the people of Georgia be called, to which they may all be referred. Let the sovereignty of the people speak. Some think that the election of Mr. Lincoln is cause sufficient to dissolve the Union. Some think those other grievances are sufficient to dissolve the same, and that the Legislature has the power thus to act, and ought thus to act. I have no hesitation in saying that the Legislature is not the proper body to sever our federal relations, if that necessity should arise. An honorable and distinguished gentleman, the other night (Mr. T. R. R. Cobb), advised you to take this course,—not to wait to hear from the cross-roads and groceries......

The third party provider of the integration may share certain information about your account with Slack. However, we do not receive or store your passwords for any of these third party services.

Reform ideas that have already emerged or been discarded in the business sector may be promoted as new and innovative in the edu-cation sector

how we might identify new objects of study, rather than applying new methodologies to the same old bunch of stuff.

Do you really think Apple doesn't know? In a company obsessed with the details-- with the aluminum being milled just so, with the glass being fitted perfectly into the case-- do you really think it's credible that they don't know?

There is still a line of criticism of the TEF which begins by arguing that it is not a measure of teaching and that the metric bases are inappropriate. In an obvious sense this is true: it is not a direct measure of teaching, being underpinned by a range of survey data. But neither I, nor, I think, anyone else has ever argued that the TEF is a direct measure of teaching. It is a measure based on some of the outcomes of teaching.

I think that I am not in the least inferior to these super-apostles. 6I may be untrained in speech, but not in knowledge; certainly in every way and in all things we have made this evident to you.

We also have to think about the restrictions on net assets. Net assets are reported as either unrestricted net assets, temporarily restricted net assets or permanently restricted net assets. Unrestricted net assets have no donor-imposed stipulations but may include internal or board-designated restrictions. Temporarily restricted net assets represent assets with time and/or purpose restrictions stipulated by a donor. Permanently restricted net asset represent assets with donor restrictions that do not expire. We are therefore interested in whether the growth in an organization’s capacity is limited to donor-funded programs (i.e., temporarily or permanently net assets) or whether the growth is in its unrestricted position.

This piece is notable for its very rapid scales, which would require a virtuosic performer and a nimble instruments.

e invite you to listen in on a musical gathering that took place in Jamaica in 1688. The pages before you, from Hans Sloane’s 1707 Voyage to the Islands, offer us a set of rich and layered traces from the performance. This document is the earliest transcription of African music in the Caribbean, and indeed, probably in the Americas.

collective self-determination, we may better identify the democratic ideal as conscious social reproduction

Even when a company’s ideology is sound, the execution of that ideology through the platform may be flawed.

This is not Brutus, friend; but, I assure you, A prize no less in worth. Keep this man safe, Give him all kindness; I had rather have Such men my friends than enemies. Go on, And see whether Brutus be alive or dead; And bring us word unto Octavius’ tent How everything is chanced.

They are the faction.—O conspiracy, Shamest thou to show thy dangerous brow by night, When evils are most free? O, then, by day Where wilt thou find a cavern dark enough To mask thy monstrous visage? Seek none, conspiracy; Hide it in smiles and affability: For if thou pass, thy native semblance on, Not Erebus itself were dim enough To hide thee from prevention.

WHAT ARE THE ADVANTAGES? homies is a stepping stone onto the property ladder. It is designed to build equity and savings to eventually purchase your very own dream home. One to two years with your homie is a good starting point, from here you can look at selling the property, renting it out or opening equity. FOR RENTERS An example for a $800,000 house price $80,000 deposit per homie required (based on 20% deposit, $160,000) $385.75 per week mortgage repayment for each homie (based on 4.79% per annum over 30 years) Compared to $520.00 per week for the average Auckland rental property you could save $134.25 a week, or could put this towards paying off your principal loan faster and gaining more equity. Additionally you will be getting on the property ladder, having the security of owning your own home, taking advantage of any capital gains, and no more rental inspections! FOR THOSE LOOKING TO BUY OUTSIDE AUCKLAND AS AN INVESTMENT With a homie you are no longer priced out of buying in Auckland You can live in your house now, rather than waiting for an investment outside of Auckland to appreciate. You can easily look at properties before buying as opposed to travelling or going off the advice of real estate agents. Once you purchase an investment property you may not be eligible to use your KiwiSaver funds in the future to purchase your own home. Instead you could potentially use your Kiwisaver FOR SINGLE PEOPLE AND THOSE WITHOUT ENOUGH FOR A DEPOSIT Deposit requirements growing faster than your savings or don’t have a significant other to buy with yet? You can use any capital or equity gains to put towards your own home in the future. Team up with a homie to get in the market now. REGISTRATION IS FREE You can submit your details and we will run you through our database at no charge. It will determine if you meet the minimum criteria to purchase a home with a homie, as well as identify potential homies who you could work with. Once these two conditions are met we will send an invitation to attend one of our paid events. You will have a first introduction to potential homies and swap details to get to know them better in your own time. Our partners in the legal, mortgage and insurance fields will also be available if you have any questions. HOMIES HELPS YOU PROTECT YOURSELF BEFORE PURCHASING homies has partnered with established professionals in the mortgage, insurance and legal fields which helps in several ways. Protecting one of your most important assets, your ability to earn. If you or a homie’s ability to earn is affected, cover such as Income Protection and Mortgage Protection can be invaluable in helping you through difficult times. Shared ownership can be a complicated agreement that you will need to seek legal advice on. Once you have found a homie to purchase with they will be able to assist you with drawing up an agreement to cover the things that are important to you for what you want to achieve through your first home ownership. As well as the necessary documentation required in purchasing a home. Homies advisors will be on hand at all events and we can also refer you to these professionals at any time. *These service providers are independent of homies and fees will apply for some services that they offer* BUT I HAVE TO LIVE WITH A STRANGER? homies is designed as a temporary arrangement to help you save enough, or build enough equity to buy your own home at a later date. One to two years can be all it takes in current market conditions to achieve significant capital gains towards your deposit. Living with others is similar to flatting situations with the added benefit of you both owning the home and thus having a personal stake in it. Your homie will be driven like you to ensure your mutual goals are successful. We will introduce you to a number of potential suitors to give you the best chance of aligning with like minded people. You should discuss with your potential homies what your goals and personal preferences are. This will help set the basis for any future legal agreement. homies has legal partners we can refer you to or you can use to set this up. Important things are the exit strategies and duration. You may want a fixed term of two years to continue saving towards your deposit and look for a little boost through capital gains. Others may be Do It Yourself minded and want to make improvements to the property. Some will be keen to convert the property to a rental when they want to move out. Drawing up this legal document is key to protecting your investment into the home. Mortgage Protection and Income Protection insurance among other types of covers are also valuable tools you should look at to protect yourself. Two years is a possible time-frame to aim for. It allows you to use your KiwiSaver Withdrawal, KiwiSaver HomeStart Grant (KiwiSaver eligibility applies) to maximise your deposit, provides modest fixed mortgage rates to budget around, builds a history as a home owner with your bank and gives you a taste of what it is like to own your own home. All our homies have the goal of owning their own home eventually and are driven to make this happen. Living with people who share this same goal means both parties will be committed to the arrangement and to making it a success.

Furthermore, instructors who are teaching these skills may be simultaneously concerned with conveying the excitement of research with primary sources, or giving students a memorable or transformative experience while using such sources. Although important goals, these are abstract qualities that resist assessment and are not explicitly covered as part of these guidelines.

Yes, he probably had ongoing depression. He had a personality that was perfectionistic and self-reliant, and that made him less likely to seek help from others. He had experienced triggering events at the school that left him feeling debased and humiliated and mad. And he had a complicated friendship with a boy who shared his feelings of rage and alienation, and who was seriously disturbed, controlling and homicidal.

the repairman took the opportunity to question some of Nelson’s blithe predictions

you can think of the hoax as meeting a demand technology creates

The world has arrived at an age of cheap complex devices of great reliability; and something is bound to come of it.

And we are ready to lead once more.  (Applause.)

What is required of us now is a new era of responsibility -- a recognition on the part of every American that we have duties to ourselves, our nation and the world

superabundance of land and resources gave rise to a conviction that the continent’s resources were inexhaustible

ergodicity

impacted individual Chinese families

First he runs through an encyclopedia, finds an interesting but sketchy article, leaves it projected. Next, in a history, he finds another pertinent item, and ties the two together.

If scientific reasoning were limited to the logical processes of arithmetic, we should not get far in our understanding of the physical world. One might as well attempt to grasp the game of poker entirely by the use of the mathematics of probability.

Obscura Day 2017! Join our global celebration of exploration and discovery. May 6 window.fbAsyncInit = function() { FB.init({ appId : '206394544492', xfbml : true, version : 'v2.5' }); FB.Event.subscribe('edge.create', function(response) { Cookies.set('fb_subscriber', '1', { expires: 200, path: '/' }); }); FB.Event.subscribe('edge.remove', function(response) { Cookies.set('fb_subscriber', '0', { expires: 200, path: '/' }); }); }; (function(d, s, id){ var js, fjs = d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0]; if (d.getElementById(id)) {return;} js = d.createElement(s); js.id = id; js.src = "//connect.facebook.net/en_US/sdk.js"; fjs.parentNode.insertBefore(js, fjs); }(document, 'script', 'facebook-jssdk')); Sign In Join Find Near The Atlas Top Destinations Newly Added Places Most Popular Places Random Place Lists Add a Place Newly Added Places View All Places » Edgartown, Massachussetts Heath Hen Sculpture 41.4133, -70.6035 Northern Mariana Islands Atomic Bomb Loading Pits 15.0709, 145.6412 Aarhus, Denmark Christian Jacobsen Drakenberg's Last Home 56.1547, 10.2096 Monterey, California Fort Ord 36.6266, -121.6914 Top Destinations Countries Australia Canada China France Germany India Italy Japan Cities Amsterdam Barcelona Beijing Berlin Boston Budapest Chicago London Los Angeles Mexico City Montreal Moscow New Orleans New York Paris Philadelphia Rome San Francisco Seattle Stockholm Tokyo Toronto Vienna Washington, D.C. SEE ALL 5604 DESTINATIONS IN THE ATLAS Stories BROWSE STORIES BY Columns Features Interactive News Video Visual Most Recent Stories View All Stories » One of the Earliest Industrial Spies Was a French Missionary Stationed in China 16 hours ago The Largest Centaur in the Solar System Has Rings 17 hours ago Who Is Shaving Virginia's Cats? 18 hours ago College Student Shotguns 13 Beers During Half-Marathon 20 hours ago Events Quick Links All Events Obscura Day 2017 Explore Events Chicago Los Angeles New York Philadelphia San Francisco Seattle Washington, D.C. Upcoming Events View All Events » Apr 29 Los Angeles Uncovering Echo Park Apr 29 Washington, D.C. Touched by Cereal Royalty Apr 30 Brooklyn Uzbek Food Shopping Tour in Brooklyn Apr 30 Reseda Homeward Bound: Pigeon Navigation Trips Quick Links All Trips Where We Travel Berlin Bhutan Bulgaria Cuba Iceland Kazakhstan Morocco The Amazon Ukraine Venice Yucatán Upcoming Trips View All Trips » Unlocking Berlin's Wunderkammer May 25–May 29, 2017 Music and Medinas of Morocco Jun 23–Jun 30, 2017 Hidden Venice with a Psycho-Mambo Twist Jul 10–Jul 16, 2017 Kazakhstan and the 2017 World Expo Sep 02–Sep 10, 2017 Obscura Day 2017 Sign In Join Search Find or Near Search 59.3099, 18.0203 Lost Toys of the Nybohov Funicular, Sweden What's near me? if (!isSmallScreen()) { googletag.cmd.push(function() { googletag.display('Rotational_Top_Slot'); }); } When Squirrels Were One of America’s Most Popular Pets Benjamin Franklin even wrote an ode to a fallen one. by Natalie Zarrelli April 28, 2017 9,392 Email This Article From To Please separate multiple addresses with commas. We won't share addresses with third parties. Subscribe me to the Atlas Obscura Newsletter displayFbCount('http://www.atlasobscura.com/articles/pet-squirrel-craze', '.js-facebook-count'); Pete the squirrel, who was a pet of President Harding. Library of Congress/LC-DIG-hec-42488 In 1722, a pet squirrel named Mungo passed away. It was a tragedy: Mungo escaped its confines and met its fate at the teeth of a dog. Benjamin Franklin, friend of the owner, immortalized the squirrel with a tribute. “Few squirrels were better accomplished, for he had a good education, had traveled far, and seen much of the world.” Franklin wrote, adding, “Thou art fallen by the fangs of wanton, cruel Ranger!” Mourning a squirrel’s death wasn’t as uncommon as you might think when Franklin wrote Mungo’s eulogy; in the 18th- and 19th centuries, squirrels were fixtures in American homes, especially for children. While colonial Americans kept many types of wild animals as pets, squirrels “were the most popular,”

Facebook soon gave everyone the equivalent of their own blog and their own audience

underdevelopment was produced as a result of power imbalances

Wetenschap moet bevrijd

We therefore the representatives of the united States of America in General Congress assebled [appealing to the Judge of the World for the recititude of our intentions] do in the name & by authority of the good people of these states [colonies] reject and renounce all allegiance & subjections to the kings of Great Britain & all others who may hereafter claim by, through or under them: we utterly disolve all political connection which may heretofore have subsisted between us & the people or parliment of Great Britain: and finally we do assert and declare these colonies to be free and independent states, [solemly Publish and Declare that these United Colonies are, and of Right ought to be, Free and Independent States; that they are dissolved from allegiance to the British Crown, and that all political Connection between them and the State of Great-Britain, is and ought to be totally dissolved;] and that as free and independent states, they have full power to levy war, conclude peace, contract allies, establish commerce, & do all other acts & things which independent states may of right do.