The basic data structures of Web Annotation

Web annotation

Other physicists and mathematicians at the turn of the century came close to arriving at what is currently known as spacetime. Einstein himself noted, that with so many people unraveling separate pieces of the puzzle, "the special theory of relativity, if we regard its development in retrospect, was ripe for discovery in 1905."

while a student at New York University in 2000. He later co-created and starred in the MTV sketch comed

marijuana entrepreneur and hand surgeon Jason Pirozzolo

Internet From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Global system of connected computer networks This article is about the worldwide computer network. For the global system of pages accessed via URLs, see World Wide Web.

Social media From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Internet services for sharing personal information and ideas Social media are interactive digitally mediated technologies that facilitate the creation or sharing/exchange of information, ideas, career interests, and other forms of expression via virtual communities and networks.[1][2] While challenges to the definition of social media arise due to the broad variety of stand-alone and built-in social-media services currently available, there are some common features:[2] Social media are interactive Web 2.0 Internet-based applications.[2][3]

Digital economy refers to an economy that is based on digital computing technologies, although we increasingly perceive this as conducting business through markets based on the internet and the World Wide Web.[1] The digital economy is also referred to as the Internet Economy, New Economy, or Web Economy. Increasingly, the digital economy is intertwined with the traditional economy, making a clear delineation harder. It results from billions of everyday online connections among people, businesses, devices, data, and processes. It is based on the interconnectedness of people, organizations, and machines that results from the Internet, mobile technology and the internet of things

Virtual communities are used for a variety of social and professional groups; interaction between community members vary from personal to purely formal. For example, an email distribution list could serve as a personal means of communicating with family and friends, and also formally to coordinate with coworkers.

A virtual community is a social network of individuals who connect through specific social media, potentially crossing geographical and political boundaries in order to pursue mutual interests or goals. Some of the most pervasive virtual communities are online communities operating under social networking services.

It generally refers at least to the cultures of virtual communities,

Information Age

This marks the transition from load time (and dynamic link time, if present) to run time.

2.2 billion years older than the Sun, at 6.9 billion years old

Pennsylvan

these events can break the flow of the game and force the player to repeat sections until they master the event, adding false difficulty to the game.

Blessed Anna Maria Taigi (1769–1837) is the most known seer of the Three Days of Darkness and describes the event in this way:

A bodhisattva vow ritual text attributed to Nāgārjuna, of the second-third century CE, states the vow as follows: "Just as the past tathāgata arhat samyaksambuddhas, when engaging in the behavior of a bodhisattva, generated the aspiration to unsurpassed complete enlightenment so that all beings be liberated, all beings be freed, all beings be relieved, all beings attain complete nirvana, all beings be placed in omniscient wisdom, in the same way, I whose name is so-and-so, from this time forward, generate the aspiration to unsurpassed complete enlightenment so that all beings be liberated, all beings be freed, all beings be relieved, all beings attain complete nirvana, all beings be placed in omniscient wisdom."[31]

Bodhisattva

An event space, which is a set of events F {\displaystyle {\mathcal {F}}} F

The thermophoresis of a fluorescently labeled molecule A

Influenced byC, Smalltalk

In the Camerer, Loewenstein and Weber's article, it is mentioned that the setting closest in structure to the market experiments done would be underwriting, a task in which well-informed experts price goods that are sold to a less-informed public. Investment bankers value securities, experts taste cheese, store buyers observe jewelry being modeled, and theater owners see movies before they are released. They then sell those goods to a less-informed public. If they suffer from the curse of knowledge, high-quality goods will be overpriced and low-quality goods underpriced relative to optimal, profit-maximizing prices; prices will reflect characteristics (e.g., quality) that are unobservable to uninformed buyers ("you get what you pay for").[5] The curse of knowledge has a paradoxical effect in these settings. By making better-informed agents think that their knowledge is shared by others, the curse helps alleviate the inefficiencies that result from information asymmetries (a better informed party having an advantage in a bargaining situation), bringing outcomes closer to complete information. In such settings, the curse on individuals may actually improve social welfare.

Such research drew from Baruch Fischhoff's work in 1975 surrounding hindsight bias, a cognitive bias that knowing the outcome of a certain event makes it seem more predictable than may actually be true.[5] Research conducted by Fischhoff revealed that participants did not know that their outcome knowledge affected their responses, and, if they did know, they could still not ignore or defeat the effects of the bias.

This curse of knowledge also explains the danger behind thinking about student learning based on what appears best to faculty members, as opposed to what has been verified with students.

The hypothesis, being insecure, needs to have practical implications leading at least to mental tests and, in science, lending themselves to scientific tests.

Test the hypothesis

This tendency is known as the “actor-observer effect”. What this means is that people often attribute their own behavior to situational causes, while observers attribute the actor's behavior to the personality or disposition of the actor. For example, an actor's common reason to be late is due to the situational reason, traffic. Observers’ lack of contextual knowledge about the traffic, i.e. common ground, leads to them attributing the lateness due to ignorance or laziness on the actor's part. This tendency towards dispositional attribution is especially magnified when the stakes are higher and the situation is more complex. When observers are relatively calm, the tendency towards dispositional attribution is less strong.[25]

Common ground in communication has been critical in mitigating misunderstandings and negotiations.

It comprises the collection of "mutual knowledge, mutual beliefs, and mutual assumptions" that is essential for communication between two people.

Visible spectrum wrapped to join blue and green in an additive mixture of cyan

chronicled in the New Testament.

Jesus is the Christ, whose coming as the Messiah was prophesied in the Hebrew Bible, called the Old Testament in Christianity

Structure and Interpretation of Classical Mechanics

Yoneda lemma

the interweaving of opposites – and implies the process of an object being moulded into unity.

art created as a result of such a chance-determined process

for compositions resulting from "actions made by chance"

Heraclitus

Nevertheless, co-hyponyms are not necessarily incompatible in all senses. A queen and mother are both hyponyms of woman but there is nothing preventing the queen from being a mother.

It consists of two relations; the first one being exemplified in "An X is a Y" (simple hyponymy) while the second relation is "An X is a kind/type of Y". The second relation is said to be more discriminating and can be classified more specifically under the concept of taxonomy.

This shows that compatibility may be relevant.

A synonym of co-hyponym based on same tier (and not hyponymic) relation is allonym (which means "different name").

The hierarchical structure of semantic fields can be mostly seen in hyponymy.

A hyponym is a word or phrase whose semantic field is more specific than its hypernym.

A hyponym refers to a type. A meronym refers to a part. For example, a hyponym of tree is pine tree or oak tree (a type of tree), but a meronym of tree is bark or leaf (a part of tree).

The Taylor series of a real or complex-valued function f (x) that is infinitely differentiable at a real or complex number a is the power series f ( a ) + f ′ ( a ) 1 ! ( x − a ) + f ″ ( a ) 2 ! ( x − a ) 2 + f ‴ ( a ) 3 ! ( x − a ) 3 + ⋯ , {\displaystyle f(a)+{\frac {f'(a)}{1!}}(x-a)+{\frac {f''(a)}{2!}}(x-a)^{2}+{\frac {f'''(a)}{3!}}(x-a)^{3}+\cdots ,}

Lexical (semiotics) or content word, words referring to things, as opposed to having only grammatical meaning

faithful functor

Intuitively, a subcategory of C is a category obtained from C by "removing" some of its objects and arrows.

is the vocabulary of a language or branch of knowledge (such as nautical or medical)

The lexicon of a language is its vocabulary. Lexicon is also a synonym for a dictionary or encyclopedic dictionary

Windshield phenomenon

In a broader sense, taxonomy also applies to relationship schemes other than parent-child hierarchies, such as network structures. Taxonomies may then include a single child with multi-parents, for example, "Car" might appear with both parents "Vehicle" and "Steel Mechanisms"

Taxonomies are often represented as is-a hierarchies where each level is more specific (in mathematical language "a subset of") the level above it. For example, a basic biology taxonomy would have concepts such as mammal, which is a subset of animal, and dogs and cats, which are subsets of mammal. This kind of taxonomy is called an is-a model because the specific objects are considered as instances of a concept. For example, Fido is-an instance of the concept dog and Fluffy is-a cat.

Mutually exclusive categories can be beneficial. If categories appear several places, it's called cross-listing or polyhierarchical. The hierarchy will lose its value if cross-listing appears too often. Cross-listing often appears when working with ambiguous categories that fits more than one place.

Researchers reported that large populations consistently develop highly similar category systems. This may be relevant to lexical aspects of large communication networks and cultures such as folksonomies and language or human communication, and sense-making in general.

In the simple biology example, dog is a hypernym and Fido is one of its hyponyms. A word can be both a hyponym and a hypernym. For example, dog is a hyponym of mammal and also a hypernym of Fido.

words that are examples of categories are hyponyms

Two of the predominant types of relationships in knowledge-representation systems are predication and the universally quantified conditional.

Mathematically, a hierarchical taxonomy is a tree structure of classifications for a given set of objects.

Taxonomy is different from meronomy, which is dealing with the categorisation of parts of a whole.

Tree (data structure)

Tree structure

In computer science, a tree is a widely used abstract data type that simulates a hierarchical tree structure

Not to be confused with tree (graph theory), a specific type of mathematical object.

Not to be confused with trie, a specific type of tree data structure. Not to be confused with tree (graph theory), a specific type of mathematical object.

graph theory is the study of graphs, which are mathematical structures used to model pairwise relations between objects

A semantic class contains words that share a semantic feature.

For example within nouns there are two sub classes, concrete nouns and abstract nouns.

The concrete nouns include people, plants, animals, materials and objects while the abstract nouns refer to concepts such as qualities, actions, and processes.

Semantic classes may intersect. The intersection of female and young can be girl.

Model theory recognizes and is intimately concerned with a duality: it examines semantical elements (meaning and truth) by means of syntactical elements (formulas and proofs) of a corresponding language

Roughly speaking, a category may be thought of as a type theory shorn of its syntax.

In fact categories can themselves be viewed as type theories of a certain kind

Some types exist as descriptions of objects, but not as tangible physical objects. One can show someone a particular bicycle, but cannot show someone, explicitly, the type "bicycle", as in "the bicycle is popular."

Property types (e.g. "height in metres" or "thorny") are often understood ontologically as concepts. Property instances (e.g. height = 1.74) are sometimes understood as measured values, and sometimes understood as sensations or observations of reality.

The words type, concept, property, quality, feature and attribute (all used in describing things) tend to be used with different verbs. E.g. Suppose a rose bush is defined as a plant that is "thorny", "flowering" and "bushy". You might say a rose bush instantiates these three types, or embodies these three concepts, or exhibits these three properties, or possesses these three qualities, features or attributes.

The distinction in computer programming between classes and objects is related, though in this context, "class" sometimes refers to a set of objects (with class-level attribute or operations) rather than a description of an object in the set, as "type" would.

The distinction is important in disciplines such as logic, linguistics, metalogic, typography, and computer programming.

The sentence "they drive the same car" is ambiguous. Do they drive the same type of car (the same model) or the same instance of a car type (a single vehicle)?

A semantic similarity network (SSN) is a special form of semantic network.[1] designed to represent concepts and their semantic similarity. Its main contribution is reducing the complexity of calculating semantic distances.

There is obvious connections between the flow paths of a use case and its test cases. Deriving functional test cases from a use case through its scenarios (running instances of a use case) is straightforward.

With content based upon an action or event flow structure, a model of well-written use cases also serves as an excellent groundwork and valuable guidelines for the design of test cases

Originally he had used the terms usage scenarios and usage case – the latter a direct translation of his Swedish term användningsfall – but found that neither of these terms sounded natural in English, and eventually he settled on use case.

Use cases are not only texts, but also diagrams, if needed.

Title: "goal the use case is trying to satisfy"[23]:101 Main Success Scenario: numbered list of steps[23]:101 Step: "a simple statement of the interaction between the actor and a system"[23]:101 Extensions: separately numbered lists, one per Extension[23]:101 Extension: "a condition that results in different interactions from .. the main success scenario". An extension from main step 3 is numbered 3a, etc.

the phrase use case is a polyseme with two senses

The is-a relationship may also be contrasted with the instance-of relationship between objects (instances) and types (classes): see Type–token distinction.

In autoepistemic logic, which rejects the law of excluded middle, predicates may be true, false, or simply unknown

The precise semantic interpretation of an atomic formula and an atomic sentence will vary from theory to theory.

A predicate whose quantifiers all apply to individual elements, and not to sets or predicates, is called a first-order predicate.

While propositional logic can only express facts, autoepistemic logic can express knowledge and lack of knowledge about facts.

The autoepistemic logic is a formal logic for the representation and reasoning of knowledge about knowledge.

'female' + 'performer' = 'actress'

An individual semantic feature constitutes one component of a word's intention, which is the inherent sense or concept evoked.

The semantic features of a word can be notated using a binary feature notation common to the framework of componential analysis.[11] A semantic property is specified in square brackets and a plus or minus sign indicates the existence or non-existence of that property.

a class is an implementation‍—‌a concrete data structure and collection of subroutines‍—‌while a type is an interface

but narrowly speaking objects have type

In casual use, people often refer to the "class" of an object

Semantic class

semantic fields are constantly flowing into each other

The English word "man" used to mean "human being" exclusively, while today it predominantly means "adult male," but its semantic field still extends in some uses to the generic "human"

Synonymy requires the sharing of a sememe or seme, but the semantic field is a larger area surrounding those.

A general and intuitive description is that words in a semantic field are not necessarily synonymous, but are all used to talk about the same general phenomenon.

A semantic field denotes a segment of reality symbolized by a set of related words. The words in a semantic field share a common semantic property

grouped semantically (by meaning)

There may only be historical reasons that, for example, the periodic table is called a classification rather than a taxonomy

Taxonomy was first used in biology, but the term has spread to other domains.

Categorization is, for example, mostly used by cognitive psychologists for what other call classification

Synonyms and near-synonyms for the term classification

Categorization is sometimes considered synonymous with classification

Categorization is grounded in the features that distinguish the category's members from nonmembers.

Categorization is the human ability and activity of recognizing shared features or similarities between the elements of the experience of the world (such as objects, events, or ideas), organizing and classifying experience by associating them to a more abstract group (that is, a category, class, or type),[1][2] on the basis of their traits, features, similarities or other criteria.

place

semantic domain or semantic field

For instance English has a domain ‘Rain’, which includes words such as rain, drizzle, downpour, raindrop, puddle.

For instance, in basketball there are many words that are specific to the sport. Free throw, court, half court, three pointer, and point guard are all terms that are specific to the sport of basketball. These words make very little sense when used outside of the semantic domain of basketball.

In lexicography a semantic domain or semantic field is defined as "an area of meaning and the words used to talk about it

Semantic domains are the foundational concept for initial stages of vernacular dictionary building projects.

This uses techniques such as SIL International's Dictionary Development Process (DDP),[4][5] RapidWords, or software such as WeSay[6] or FLEx. These techniques rely on extensive lists of semantic domains that are relevant to vernacular languages.

Sometimes lexicography is considered to be a part or a branch of lexicology, but properly speaking, only lexicologists who write dictionaries are lexicographers.

Some consider this a distinction of theory vs. practice.

An allied science to lexicology is lexicography, which also studies words, but primarily in relation with dictionaries – it is concerned with the inclusion of words in dictionaries and from that perspective with the whole lexicon

Not to be confused with lexicography.

For example, in the Dyirbal language, the morpheme balam marks each entity in its noun class with the semantic property of edibility,[8] and Burmese encodes the semantic property for the ability to cut or pierce. Encoding the functional property for transportation, housing, and speech are also attested in world languages.

meaningful or meaningless – for example, whether a given word is part of a language's lexicon with a generally understood meaning

Basic semantic properties include being meaningful or meaningless – for example, whether a given word is part of a language's lexicon with a generally understood meaning

those aspects of a linguistic unit, such as a morpheme, word, or sentence,

Every woman talked to a student. This has two interpretations. Under one reading, every woman talked to the same student (the class president, for example), and here the noun phrase a student is specific. Under the second reading, various students were talked to. In this case, a student is non-specific.

a stative verb is one that describes a state of being, in contrast to a dynamic verb, which describes an action

Semantics: deals with the formal properties and interrelation of signs and symbols, without regard to meaning.