RF LV2 host Lauren's pronunciation: I am right about: bien, faire, etc. She is Québecois.

法文雞 detailed discussions of A1 grammar

A1 初級文法 Search: 內容 分類 建議順序 初級文法 10 介詞：à / de + 城市和國家 介詞 1 初級文法 11 介詞：上下前後內 介詞 2 初級文法 12 介詞：離...很近 / 很遠 près de, loin de 介詞 3 初級文法 26 表示存在：il y a 表達：空間 4 初級文法 13 疑問形式：qui, que, c'est vs il est 問答 5 初級文法 14 c'est 和 il est 的分別 問答 6 初級文法 17 部分冠詞 - du, de la, des 限定詞 7 初級文法 27 比較級 表達：比較 8 初級文法 28 最高級 表達：比較 9 初級文法 01 第二組 -ir 動詞變位規則 動詞 10 初級文法 02 不規則動詞變位 動詞 11 初級文法 03 動詞 faire & jouer：活動與嗜好 動詞 12 初級文法 04 動詞 aller 與地方 動詞 13 初級文法 05 最近將來時 futur proche：aller + 不定式 動詞 14 初級文法 06 複合過去時 passé composé 動詞 15 初級文法 07 未完成過去時 imparfait 動詞 16 初級文法 08 複合過去時 vs 未完成過去時 動詞 17 初級文法 09 簡單將來時 futur simple 動詞 18 初級文法 25 基本時間標誌介詞：depuis, pendant, il y a... 表達：時間 19 初級文法 15 基本疑問詞 問答 20 初級文法 16 三種疑問句形式：雅語、日常語言、通俗語言 問答 21 初級文法 18 法文直接受詞 COD vs 間接受詞 COI 總論 22 初級文法 19 直接受詞代名詞 pronom COD：le, la, les... 代詞 23 初級文法 20 間接受詞代名詞 pronom COI：lui, leur 代詞 24 初級文法 21 代詞 en 代詞 25 初級文法 22 代詞 y 代詞 26 初級文法 23 重讀人稱代詞 pronom tonique：moi, toi, lui... 代詞 27 初級文法 24 關係代詞 pronom relatif：qui, que 代詞 28 Showing 1 to 28 of 28 entries

法文雞 detailed discussions of A2 grammar

A2 初中級文法 Search: 內容 分類 建議順序 初中級文法 08 形容詞概論 形容詞 1 初中級文法 12 泛指詞 indéfinis 代詞 / 限定詞 2 初中級文法 17 基本時間空間表達補遺 表達：時間、空間 3 初中級文法 09 副詞概論 副詞 4 初中級文法 11 代名詞的順序 代詞 6 初中級文法 01 代詞式動詞的四種意義 動詞 7 初中級文法 02 命令式 impératif 動詞 9 初中級文法 13 關係代詞 pronom relatif：où, dont 代詞 9 初中級文法 03 條件式 conditionnel 動詞 10 初中級文法 14 關係代詞：ce qui, ce que, ce dont 代詞 10 初中級文法 15 複合關係代詞：auquel, duquel, pour lequel... 代詞 11 初中級文法 10 ne...pas 外的否定形式 否定 12 初中級文法 16 間接引語 表達：引語 13 初中級文法 04 過去分詞、現在分詞和副動詞 gérondif 動詞 14 初中級文法 05 被動語態 動詞 15 初中級文法 06 愈過去時 plus-que-parfait 和先將來時 futur anterieur 動詞 16 初中級文法 18 三種條件句 表達：假設 17 初中級文法 07 虛擬式 subjontif 動詞 18 初中級文法 19 邏輯關係 表達：邏輯 19 Showing 1 to 19 of 19 entries

法文雞 Same TOC in POS:

動詞 我是誰 動詞 faire 做 (一項活動) 反身動詞 動詞 aller 去 和 venir 來 動詞 pouvoir 可、devoir 要 和 vouloir 想 條件式的 devoir 和 pouvoir 後接不定式的動詞

語式和時態

直陳式

最近將來時 aller + 動詞原形 現在進行時和最近過去時 複合過去時 複合過去時的反身動詞和有兩個助動詞的動詞 未完成過去時 愈過去時 過去時比較：複合過去時、未完成過去時、愈過去時 簡單過去時 最近將來時和簡單將來時 不規則的簡單將來時動詞

命令式

條件式

虛擬式

虛擬式現在時 虛擬式過去時

分詞式

不規則過去分詞 過去分詞的性數配合 被動語態 現在分詞 副動詞 en faisant…

限定詞

定冠詞和不定冠詞 un / une / des、le / la / les 指示形容詞 ce / cet / cette / ces 主有形容詞 mon / ma / mes… 部份冠詞及數量表達 du、beaucoup de… 泛指形容詞和泛指代詞 tout、plusieurs、certains….

代詞

重讀人稱代詞 moi, toi, lui, elle… 非人稱代詞 il 直接和間接代詞 代詞 en 和 y 代詞的位置與順序 關係代詞 qui、que、où 複合關係代詞 中性的關係代詞和強調法 泛指形容詞和泛指代詞 tout、plusieurs、certains…. 主有代詞 指示代詞 celui-ci、celle-là、ceux-ci…

否定

簡單否定 複雜否定 ne…rien、ne…plus、ne…jamais、ne…personne、ne…aucun

提問

以 quel 提問 封閉式問題 開放式問題

表達

C'est & il est Il y a 時間表達：ça fait、il y a…que、pendant、il y a 表達原因 表達結果 表達目的 表達對立 表達讓步 人、事物、動作的比較 數量的比較 引語 假設

其他

國藉 國家與城市 年齡 星期一至日 職業 品質形容詞 談論季節、介詞 日子、月份

大部分譯自《新觀察家》(L'OBS) ，法文原版：傳送門

This Chinese instructor for French grammar is clear and succinct. KEEP!

法文雞的文法筆記

C2 程度法文學習者，幾年前開始在香港教授小班法文。希望網站能提供循序漸進、有系統和容易檢閱的文法教學。有任何問題、想查詢開班或網課事宜等，歡迎發電郵，又或在下方聯絡欄留言給我。

電郵：

coq@lecoqfr.comOpens in your application

A1: 初學階段入門級

〈隱藏 A1 文法〉 1.1. 自我介紹

1.1.1. 我是誰 1.1.2. 國藉 1.1.3. 國家與城市 1.1.4. 年齡 1.1.5. 否定 1.1.6. 以 quel 提問 1.1.7. 封閉式問題 1.1.8. 開放式問題

1.2. 談論活動

1.2.1. 動詞 faire 做 (一項活動) 1.2.2. 星期一至日 1.2.3. 反身動詞 1.2.4. 動詞 aller 去 和 venir 來 1.2.5. 重讀人稱代詞 moi, toi, lui, elle… 1.2.6. 最近將來時 aller + 動詞原形

1.3. 要求和提議

1.3.1. 指示形容詞 ce / cet / cette / ces 1.3.2. 動詞 pouvoir 可、devoir 要 和 vouloir 想

1.4. 描述

1.4.1. C'est & il est 1.4.2. 主有形容詞 mon / ma / mes… 1.4.3. 職業 1.4.4. 品質形容詞 1.4.5. Il y a 1.4.6. 人、事物、動作的比較

1.5. 建議他人

1.5.1. 命令式 1.5.2. 條件式的 devoir 和 pouvoir

1.6. 談論食物

1.6.1. 定冠詞和不定冠詞 un / une / des、le / la / les 1.6.2. 部份冠詞及數量表達 du、beaucoup de…

1.7. 談論天氣

1.7.1. 非人稱代詞 il 1.7.2. 談論季節、介詞

1.8. 談論過去

1.8.1. 複合過去時 1.8.2. 日子、月份

A2: 初學階段初級

〈隱藏 A2 文法〉 2.1. 談論過去

2.1.1. 未完成過去時 2.1.2. 不規則過去分詞 2.1.3. 時間表達：ça fait、il y a…que、pendant、il y a 2.1.4. 複合過去時的反身動詞和有兩個助動詞的動詞

2.2. 談論事物和人

2.2.1. 關係代詞 qui、que、où 2.2.2. 主有代詞 2.2.3. 直接和間接代詞 2.2.4. 數量的比較 2.2.5. 泛指形容詞和泛指代詞 tout、plusieurs、certains… 2.2.6. 代詞 en 和 y 2.2.7. 複雜否定 ne…rien、ne…plus、ne…jamais、ne…personne、ne…aucun

2.3. 談論動作

2.3.1. 現在進行時和最近過去時

2.4. 談論將來

2.4.1. 最近將來時和簡單將來時 2.4.2. 不規則的簡單將來時動詞

B1: 獨立階段中級

〈隱藏 B1 文法〉 3.1. 談論各種事情

3.1.1. 被動語態 3.1.2. 愈過去時 3.1.3. 過去時比較：複合過去時、未完成過去時、愈過去時 3.1.4. 引語 3.1.5. 假設 3.1.6. 過去分詞的性數配合

3.2. 談論動作

3.2.1. 副動詞 en faisant… 3.2.2. 指示代詞 celui-ci、celle-là、ceux-ci…

3.3. 解釋和議論

3.3.1. 表達原因 3.3.2. 表達結果 3.3.3. 表達目的 3.3.4. 表達對立 3.3.5. 複合關係代詞 3.3.6. 代詞的位置與順序 3.3.7. 條件式的運用 3.3.8. 中性的關係代詞和強調法 3.3.9. 表達讓步 3.3.10. 虛擬式的運用

B2: 獨立階段中高級

〈隱藏 B2 文法〉 4.1. 談論過去

4.1.1. 簡單過去時 4.1.2. 虛擬式過去時

4.2. 談論動作

4.2.1. 後接不定式的動詞 4.2.2. 現在分詞

大部分譯自《新觀察家》(L'OBS) ，法文原版：傳送門

subjunctive: all usages

用法

虛擬式用於無關現實的事實，表達主觀的態度；相對於直陳式用於關於現實中的事實的陳述、表達客觀的態度。在表達情感 (害怕、喜悅、悲傷、期待、欲望、主觀必要性等）的動詞或非人稱構成、它們所後接的分句中，我們經常使用虛擬式。

J'ai peur qu'il soit en retard. 我擔心他遲到。

Il est important que vous puissiez être là. 重要的是，你能到場。

在下面三種情況之下，分句都要使用虛擬式：

一）當主句動詞表達必要性

Il faut qu'il soit à la réunion demain. 他明天必須出席會議。

Il est nécessaire que vous appreniez votre leçon par cœur. 你一定要用心學習你的課。

二）當主句動詞表達可能性或不可能性

Il est possible que nous soyons dans l'incapacité de venir à la conférence. 我們可能不能前來參加會議。

Il est impossible qu'il sache la vérité. 他不可能知道真相。

三）當主要動詞表達偏好

Je déteste que tu fasses autant de bruit. 我討厭你制造這麼多噪音。

Je préfère que vous veniez seul. 我寧可你一個人來。

特殊情況

表達意見的動詞後的分句，如 penser que, croire que, trouver que 等，只有否定時才用虛擬式。

Il ne pense pas que nous soyons mauvais. 他不認為我們很壞。

Je ne crois pas qu'il faille prévenir le directeur. 我不認為要告訴導演。

espérer 不使用虛擬式。

J'espère qu'il viendra à la fête. 我希望他會來派對。

構成

虛擬式構成：直陳式現在時第三人稱眾數 ils 的詞根 + 詞尾 -e、-es、-e、-ions、-iez、-ent。

動詞 finir： ils finissent (現在時) -> je finisse / tu finisses / il finisse / nous finissions / vous finissiez / ils finissent

注意！：當直陳式現在時中，nous 與 vous 的詞根和 ils 不同的時候，我們在虛擬式中也保留這個分別。

動詞 prendre : ils prennent (現在時) -> je prenne/tu prennes/il prenne/ils prennent nous prenons (現在時) -> nous prenions/vous preniez

人稱 現在時 ils 詞根 詞尾 虛擬式 que je finiss –e finisse que tu –es finisses qu'il / elle / on –e finisse que nous -ions finissions que vous –iez finissiez qu'ils / elles –ent finissent

以下是虛擬式常用的不規則動詞：

être avoir faire aller pouvoir savoir que je sois que j'aie que je fasse que j'aille que je puisse que je sache que tu sois que tu aies que tu fasses que tu ailles que tu puisses que tu saches qu'il/elle soit qu'il/elle ait qu'il/elle fasse qu'il/elle aille qu'il/elle puisse qu'il/elle sache que nous soyons que nous ayons que nous fassions que nous allions que nous puissions que nous sachions que vous soyez que vous ayez que vous fassiez que vous alliez que vous puissiez que vous sachiez qu'ils/elles soient qu'ils/elles aient qu'ils/elles fassent qu'ils/elles aillent qu'ils/elles puissent qu'ils/elles sachent 其他還有： Vouloir -> que je veuille Falloir -> qu'il faille Pleuvoir -> qu'il pleuve

French conditional tense: all usages

語式上的用法

語式指說話人對他自己說的話所表達的態度。條件式可用於表達以下東西：

一）禮貌（常見於動詞 pouvoir 和 vouloir）

Je voudrais un café s'il vous plait. 我想要一杯咖啡，謝謝。

Je pourrais parler avec M. Dupontel ? 我可以跟 Dupontel 先生說話嗎？

二）建議（常見用於動詞 devoir）

Tu devrais parler à ton père. 你應該跟你的爸爸談談。

Vous devriez appeler le médecin. 你應該叫醫生。

三）欲望（常見於動詞 vouloir 和 aimer）

J'aimerais devenir pianiste. 我想成為鋼琴家。

Nous voudrions déménager dans le sud de la France. 我們想搬往南法。

四）未經核實的事實

Le ministre rencontrerait son homologue allemand très prochainement. 部長快將會見他的德國同行。

Un accident a eu lieu sur l'autoroute A4. Il y aurait trois blessés. 在 A4 公路發生了意外，有三名傷者。

五）後悔（常見於動詞 vouloir、devoir、aimer 的虛擬式過去時）

J'aurais voulu être un artiste. 我希望我是一個藝術家。

Nous aurions aimé le connaître. 我們本想認識他。

Tu aurais dû lui parler. 你應和他談談的。

假設中的用法

想像一些不存在的東西，及對現在進行假設的時候，我們用 si + 未完成過去時 及 虛擬式現在時。

Si tu avais de l'argent, tu achèterais une nouvelle voiture. (但你沒有錢) 如果你有錢，你會買一輛新車。

S'il faisait beau, nous irions à la mer et nous ferions une balade à vélo. (但天氣不好) 如果天氣很好，我們會去海邊騎單車。

想像一些不存在的東西，及對過去進行假設的時候，我們用 si + 愈過去時 及 虛擬式過去時。

Si tu avais quitté Paris, tu aurais habité dans une belle et grande maison avec un jardin. (但你沒有離開巴黎) 如果你離開了巴黎，你便會住在一間又大又漂亮、有花園的房子了。

Si vos enfants étaient partis en Italie, vous les auriez rejoints. (但你的孩子沒有到意大利去) 如果你的孩子到了意大利去，你便會跟他們重聚了。

passé simple = passé composé

簡單過去時相當於複合過去時，但簡單過去時尤其用於歷史文獻或文學中，在口語中不再使用。

This page explains the same thing in terms of "hypotheticals" using si clause.

Refer to main explanation that clarifies it for me: https://www.lecoqfr.com/%e6%b3%95%e6%96%87%e7%9a%84%e4%b8%89%e7%a8%ae%e6%a2%9d%e4%bb%b6%e5%8f%a5%e5%92%8c%e6%99%82%e6%85%8b%e8%a6%81%e6%b1%82/

對未來的假設

構成是 si + 現在時 及 簡單將來時。它表達一種不肯定性以及實現的可能。

Si les enfants sortent plus tard de l'école, on viendra les chercher. 如果孩子們晚點離開學校，我們將會來接他們。 = 孩子們可能會晚點離開。

對現在的假設

構成是 si + 未完成過去時 及 條件式現在時。它是一種想像，涉及當下不存在的東西。

Si les enfants sortaient plus tard de l'école, on viendrait les chercher. 如果孩子們會晚點離開學校，我們便會來接他們。 = 孩子們不會晚點離開學校，我們不會來接他們。

對過去的假設

構成是 si + 愈過去時 及 條件式過去時。它經常用於表達對一個已完結的東西、無法重回的處境的傷感、惋惜、後悔。

Si les enfants étaient sortis plus tard de l'école, on serait venus les chercher. 如果孩子們晚點離開學校，我們便能來接他們了。 = 孩子們並沒有晚點離開，我們也沒去接他們。

Si j'avais été riche, j'aurais acheté une villa. 如果我很富有，我便會買一棟別墅了。 = 我從不富有，也從沒買別墅。

This entire page in Chinese answers one question I have been puzzled with: does si + imparfait + main cause conditional tense always express irrealis? Answer: Yes!

法文的假設：三種條件句

法文最主要會用 si 「如果」來表達條件或假設。其基本的構成是：

Si 分句 (作為條件) + 主句(作為結果的動作)

Si tu veux, tu peux venir. 如果你想，你可以來。

Si tu as moins de 21 ans, tu peux obtenir une réduction de prix. 如果你未滿 21 歲，你可以獲得減價優惠。

而根據分句中的條件的性質，法文的條件句有三種條件句，因而要求在主句和分句使用不同時式、時態的動詞。三種條件句分別是：1) 一般條件、2) 關於現在或將來的、不真實或想像的條件和 3) 關於過去的不真實或想像的條件。

第一種條件句：一般條件——肯定性、可能性或命令 在這種條件句，條件可以被正常實現，而大多數情況我們按不同時式、時態的一般價值來使用。不同時式、時態的配合表達的意義有細微的差別。

Si 現在時 + 現在時——慣性動作或接近肯定發生的事情

Si tu veux, tu peux venir. 如果你想，你可以來。

S'il pleut, je reste chez moi. 如果下雨，我留在家。

Si 現在時 + 簡單將來時——大機會發生的事情

Si j'ai le temps, je ferai du sport. 如果我有時間，我會做運動。

Si je vais en France, je prendrai le train. 如果我去法國，我會乘火車。

Si 現在時 + 命令式——命令

Si tu peux, dis-moi. 如果你可以，告訴我。

Si 未完成過去時 + 未完成過去時——在過去的慣性動作

Autrefois, s'il pleuvait, nous jouions aux jeux vidéo. 以前，下雨時，我們玩遊戲機。

只有一種我們不按正常價值使用時態，這就是用複合過去時來表達在未來發生或完成的事件：

Si 複合過去時 + 現在時 / 簡單將來時 / 命令式

Si j'ai fini mes devoirs, je vous rejoindrai plus tard. 如果我完成我的功課，我會晚點加入你們。

而在後面第二和第三種條件句，時式和時態都失去了一般使用時的價值。

第二種條件句：關於現在或將來的、不真實或想像的條件 第二種條件句關乎當下或未來的、不真實或想像的條件，這個條件與現實的情況不符。它由未完成過去時和條件式現在時構成。在這裡，這種時式、時態都失去了原本的時態意義——即未完成過去時不再關乎過去，條件式現在時不是對過去而言的將來時。

Si 未完成過去時 + 條件式現在時

S'il faisait beau, je ferais du sport. (但天氣不好) 如果天氣好，我會做運動。

Si j'étais toi, je ferais mieux. (但我不是你) 如果我是你，我會做得更好。

第三種條件句：關於過去的、不真實或想像的條件 第三種條件句關乎在過去的不真實或想像的條件，這個條件與過去發生的現實不符。它由愈過去時和條件式過去時構成。同上，這兩種時式、時態都失去了原本的時態意義。這種條件句常用於表達後悔與遺憾。

Si 愈過去時 + 條件式過去時

Si j'avais eu le temps, j'aurais fait du sport. (而過去的我沒有時間) 如果我有時間，我便會做運動了。

Si tu m'avais dit la vérité, je ne serais pas parti. (而過去的你沒有告訴我真相) 如果你告訴了我真相，我便不會離開了。

for - history - French and American Revolution - the role of coffee houses during the Enlightenment

summary - Coffee has a fascinating history - The relationship between coffee and alcohol was interesting - In Muslim culture, coffee houses began appearing in the Ottoman Empire because alcohol was forbidden for Muslims - The coffeehouses spread from the Ottoman Empire to Europe where it replaced the daily ritual of drinking beer - People in London did not drink the polluted Thames because it was so unhygienic that they could catch cholera - Alcohol had its side effects however, of making everyone drowsy. When the Industrial Revolution appeared, this drowsiness could lead to terrible industrial accidents - Coffee was the perfect replacement. Some speculate that it made the Industrial Revolution possible - Coffee houses began to spring up in London. Like in the Ottoman Empire, they were frowned upon by elites because this ability for all types of people to gather for the first time was perceived as a threat to political stability - Among the ideas born in coffee houses and cafes: - French Revolution - Storming of the Bastille j - Enlightenment intellectuals met here - American Revolution - Sons of Liberty met and planned the American Revolution - Benjamin Franklin frequented - Lloyds of London was conceived of - The idea of the Newspaper started due to notes of ideas exchanged and communicated in different columns of notes recorded - Famous scientists met there like Isaac Newton - London Stock Exchange was conceived of here

for - trivia / history - Paris Cafes - Cafe Procope - Enlightenment - French Revolution - Rosseau, Diderot and Voltaire met and shared ideas here with the public

for - trivia / history - coffee house - quote - Paris Cafe as organizing ground for the agitators that led the French Revolution

quote - Where does so much mad agitation come from? - From a crowd of - minor clerks and lawyers, - from unknown writers, - starving scribblers, - who go about rabble-rousing in clubs and cafés. - These are the hotbeds that have forged the weapons with which the masses are armed today.

2023 haben Böden und Landpflanzen fast kein CO2 absorbiert. Dieser Kollaps der Landsenken vor allem durch Dürren und Waldbrände wurde in diesem Ausmaß kaum vorausgesehen, und es ist nicht klar, ob auf ihn eine Regeneration folgt. Er stellt Klimamodelle ebenso in Frage wie die meisten nationalen Pläne zum Erreichen von CO2-Neutralität, weil sie auf natürlichen Senken an Land beruhen. Es gibt Anzeichen dafür, dass die steigenden Temperaturen inzwischen auch die CO2-Aufnahmefähigkeit der Meere schwächen. Überblicksartikel mit Links zu Studien https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2024/oct/14/nature-carbon-sink-collapse-global-heating-models-emissions-targets-evidence-aoe

One of the most beautiful versions of the Internationale Song I have ever heard/seen

"Fast Food". Female house sparrow (Passer domesticus) on a city street prepares to feast on a discarded french fry. (Credit: hedera.baltica / CC BY-SA 2.0) HEDERA.BALTICA VIA A CREATIVE COMMONS LICENSE

What I like about this photo is that when I was a kid, I was amazed when I saw a sparrow doing this very thing, scavenging french fries. I was around 7–8 years old. My mom had taken me on a shopping trip in her 1968 Buick Skylark, green with black roof. We stopped at McDonald's for a snack. She went in to get food and left me sitting in the car. She had parked in front of the shop, facing the hedge-bordered outdoor eating area. I saw sparrows hopping through those hedges and on the ground around them. A lucky few of them found several french fries and were either eating them or carrying them away in their beaks. As a little kid growing up in a rural area, I expected birds to eat only seeds or bugs, so this sparrow french fry feast was surprising and hilarious to me.>

Vor einem Untersuchungsausschuss des französischen Senats hat sich der Chef von TotalEnergies, Pouyanné, mit den Standard-Argumenten von Big Oil gegen den Vorwurf gewehrt, die globale Erhitzung anzutreiben: Man befriedige nur die Nachfrage, nach fossilen Energien, senke den CO2-Ausstoß bei der Förderung, investiere auch in erneuerbare Energien und sei unverzichtbar, um die Energiewende zu vollziehen. https://www.liberation.fr/environnement/climat/totalenergies-interroge-au-senat-patrick-pouyanne-defend-ses-investissements-dans-le-fossile-20240429_Z5PVIU62UZDR3N2IKVRVW3UXJA/

https://www.liberation.fr/politique/une-commission-denquete-sur-les-relations-incestueuses-entre-totalenergies-et-letat-francais-20240207_2PU6JRL46RAEJKG7D5X5DALTZI/

3 pillars to french hospital medicine;

-physical diagnosis -pathologico-clinical correlation -use of large numbers of cases to elucidate diagnostic categories + evaluate therapy

Schwa 撲朔迷離的音，很煩！

When phonetically realised, schwa (/ə/), also called e caduc ('dropped e') and e muet ('mute e'), is a mid-central vowel with some rounding.[22] Many authors consider its value to be [œ],[37][38] while Geoff Lindsey suggests [ɵ].[39][40] Fagyal, Kibbee & Jenkins (2006) state, more specifically, that it merges with /ø/ before high vowels and glides:

netteté /nɛtəte/ → [nɛ.tø.te] ('clarity'), atelier /atəlje/ → [a.tø.lje] ('workshop'), in phrase-final stressed position:

dis-le ! /di lə/ → [di.ˈlø] ('say it'), and that it merges with /œ/ elsewhere.[41] However, some speakers make a clear distinction, and it exhibits special phonological behavior that warrants considering it a distinct phoneme. Furthermore, the merger occurs mainly in the French of France; in Quebec, /ø/ and /ə/ are still distinguished.[42]

The main characteristic of French schwa is its "instability": the fact that under certain conditions it has no phonetic realization.

That is usually the case when it follows a single consonant in a medial syllable: appeler /apəle/ → [ap.le] ('to call'), It is occasionally mute in word-final position: porte /pɔʁtə/ → [pɔʁt] ('door'). Word-final schwas are optionally pronounced if preceded by two or more consonants and followed by a consonant-initial word: une porte fermée /yn(ə) pɔʁt(ə) fɛʁme/ → [yn.pɔʁ.t(ə).fɛʁ.me] ('a closed door'). In the future and conditional forms of -er verbs, however, the schwa is sometimes deleted even after two consonants[citation needed]: tu garderais /ty ɡaʁdəʁɛ/ → [ty.ɡaʁ.d(ə.)ʁɛ] ('you would guard'), nous brusquerons [les choses] /nu bʁyskəʁɔ̃/ → [nu.bʁys.k(ə.)ʁɔ̃] ('we will precipitate [things]'). On the other hand, it is pronounced word-internally when it follows more pronounced consonants that cannot be combined into a complex onset with the initial consonants of the next syllable: gredin /ɡʁədɛ̃/ → [ɡʁə.dɛ̃] ('scoundrel'), sept petits /sɛt pəti/ → [sɛt.pə.ti] ('seven little ones').[43] In French versification, word-final schwa is always elided before another vowel and at the ends of verses. It is pronounced before a following consonant-initial word.[44] For example, une grande femme fut ici, [yn ɡʁɑ̃d fam fy.t‿i.si] in ordinary speech, would in verse be pronounced [y.nə ɡʁɑ̃.də fa.mə fy.t‿i.si], with the /ə/ enunciated at the end of each word.

Schwa cannot normally be realised as a front vowel ([œ]) in closed syllables. In such contexts in inflectional and derivational morphology, schwa usually alternates with the front vowel /ɛ/:

harceler /aʁsəle/ → [aʁ.sœ.le] ('to harass'), with il harcèle /il aʁsɛl/ → [i.laʁ.sɛl] ('[he] harasses').[45] A three-way alternation can be observed, in a few cases, for a number of speakers:

appeler /apəle/ → [ap.le] ('to call'), j'appelle /ʒ‿apɛl/ → [ʒa.pɛl] ('I call'), appellation /apelasjɔ̃/ → [a.pe.la.sjɔ̃] ('brand'), which can also be pronounced [a.pɛ.la.sjɔ̃].[46] Instances of orthographic ⟨e⟩ that do not exhibit the behaviour described above may be better analysed as corresponding to the stable, full vowel /œ/. The enclitic pronoun le, for example, always keeps its vowel in contexts like donnez-le-moi /dɔne lə mwa/ → [dɔ.ne.lœ.mwa] ('give it to me') for which schwa deletion would normally apply (giving *[dɔ.nɛl.mwa]), and it counts as a full syllable for the determination of stress.

Cases of word-internal stable ⟨e⟩ are more subject to variation among speakers, but, for example, un rebelle /œ̃ ʁəbɛl/ ('a rebel') must be pronounced with a full vowel in contrast to un rebond /œ̃ ʁəbɔ̃/ → or [œ̃ʁ.bɔ̃] ('a bounce').

Polyphenole sind ein Grundstoff für die körpereigene Vitamin C Synthese.

Die "offizielle Geschichte" behauptet, Menschen haben einen Gendefekt, der die Vitamin C Synthese verhindert... aber das ist eine Lüge, wie so viele andere "offizielle Geschichten" auch. Siehe auch: Official Stories. by Liam Scheff. Official stories exist to protect officials.

http://orthomolecular.org/resources/omns/v18n14.shtml

The Restoration of Vitamin C Synthesis in Humans

The full importance of vitamin C remains unappreciated by most health care practitioners today, as it is the most important nutrient in the body, and daily intake must be multigram in amount to even approach the benefits that vitamin C affords the body when optimally present. It has been well-established that the higher the blood levels of vitamin C, the longer and healthier the life.

The inability of most human livers to make vitamin C from glucose appears to be a combination of genetic and epigenetic defects. However, it has been discovered that the intake of hydroxytyrosol (HT) in the form of a quality olive leaf extract allows most of the consumers to substantially increase their blood levels of vitamin C. It would appear that HT effectively overcomes an epigenetic translation defect allowing the formation of GULO which can then complete the synthesis of vitamin C in the liver. And while the underlying genetic details remain to be clarified and completely understood, multiple studies have indicated that many humans do make vitamin C in utero and after birth, clearly indicating that the ability to synthesize vitamin C is a lost ability, rather than one that was never present. This also indicates that epigenetic (acquired) defects likely play the major role in adults not having the ability to make vitamin C.

Limited and small experiments have also indicated that humans supplementing HT not only have the return of the ability to make vitamin C, but also the ability to make much larger amounts of vitamin C when faced with acute toxic and/or infectious oxidative stress in the blood. This ability would be profoundly synergistic with all other beneficial treatments for different medical conditions.

https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0163936/

• for: social tipping points - political, quote - french Revolution - Denmark

• quote.

  • the French Revolution happened in Denmark

• for Jean-Antoine Letronne, myth - flat earth, book - The Cosographical opinions of the Church Fathers

via César A. Hidalgo at https://twitter.com/cesifoti/status/1715367744776908830

https://www.gentlemanstationer.com/blog/2020/9/22/introducing-clairefontaine-french-ruled-paper

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferdinand_Berthier

testing public PDF document with public annotation

!- Thomas Piketty : comment - Just like in the time of the French Revolution, the small class of elites have designed a legal and political system to escape taxation. - We will likely have another French Revolution-like event to end fiscal privileges

!- Thomas Piketty : limited ability for real change as long as elites can lobby governments - but in the past, there has been success, as the two cases previously mentioned - so it is possible, but will take just as enormous a political mobilization of the people

!- Thomas Piketty : two ways we got rid of debt in the recent past - french revolution - execute the nobility who escaped paying their fair share of debt - post WWII restructuring

WTF! 🤣

from: https://www.complexityexplorer.org/courses/162-foundations-applications-of-humanities-analytics/segments/15626

Probably the "French window" ie French doors

What we would call French doors. It makes characters coming to the window to talk slightly less ridiculous (sadly).

French notes:<br /> fiches - generally notes, specifically translates as "sheets"<br /> fichier - translates as "file"<br /> fichier boîte - translates as "file box" (aka zettelkasten in German)

While Americans and Germans call Leonardo da Vinci's painting the Mona Lisa, the French refer to it as La Joconde.

What do the French call the Mona Lisa? :: La Joconde

https://observingleslie.com/magazine/the-meaning-of-who-cut-the-cheese

"Qui a lâché Médor?" (or who let in the dog, Médor is the French equivalent of Spot), is the French equivalent of "Who cut the cheese?" in relation to smelling a potential fart, presumably because the French wouldn't malign a smelly cheese.

This is a pretty cool looking project for language learning.

<small><cite class='h-cite via'>ᔥ <span class='p-author h-card'>Manny Rayner </span> in Manny Rayner’s review of Abécédaire le petit prince | Goodreads (<time class='dt-published'>02/18/2022 11:40:10</time>)</cite></small>

We have been doing some work recently to make LARA support picture-based texts, and this is our first real example: a multimodal French alphabet book based on Le petit prince. If you're a fan of the book and beginner level in French, you might find it fun! Start Chrome or Firefox and go here.

There's a set of 26 pages, one for each letter, and each page comes in three versions. In the Semantic version, you can click on the picture and hear the word spoken in French; hovering gives you a translation. In the Phonetic version, you can hover over the word and spell though it one letter group at a time. Clicking on a letter group will play the sound and show you other words where that sound occurs. In the Examples version, you'll see a French sentence from Le petit prince which uses the word, annotated with audio and translations both for the individual words and for the sentence as a whole.

The screenshot above illustrates. The D word is dessins ("drawings"). This is the Phonetic version: I've just clicked on the letter group in, and it's played the sound /ɛ̃/, the nasalised vowel that this letter group usually represents in French, and shown me that the same sound also occurs in invisible ("invisible") and jardin ("garden"). If you go to the Examples version, you see the sentence Mon dessin ne représentait pas un chapeau. ("My drawing wasn't supposed to be a hat") from the first chapter of the book.

Comments will be very welcome! We're thinking of doing more of these and want to know where we can improve things.

S. Jacques, A. Ouahabi, and T. Lequeu. Remote Knowledge Acquisition and Assessment During the COVID-19 Pandemic. International Journal of Engineering Pedagogy (iJEP), 10(6):120, Dec. 2020.

french secondary school students

The Conspiracy Theory Handbook | Center For Climate Change Communication. (n.d.). Retrieved March 3, 2021, from https://www.climatechangecommunication.org/conspiracy-theory-handbook/

COVID-19 vaccine - King County. (n.d.). Retrieved March 2, 2021, from https://www.kingcounty.gov/depts/health/covid-19/vaccine.aspx

One key hunch about differences between language communities.

ReconfigBehSci. (2021, January 19). RT @STWorg: Translations are beginning to roll in. We have the French translation of the policy summary live here: Https://t.co/qdLAaeDvzn… [Tweet]. @SciBeh. https://twitter.com/SciBeh/status/1351532508349947905

Blayac, Thierry, Dimitri Dubois, Sebastien Duchêne, Phu Nguyen-Van, Bruno Ventelou, and Marc Willinger. ‘Population Preferences for Inclusive COVID-19 Policy Responses’. The Lancet Public Health 6, no. 1 (1 January 2021): e9. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2468-2667(20)30285-1.

Lowes, S., & Montero, E. (n.d.). The Legacy of Colonial Medicine in Central Africa. American Economic Review. https://doi.org/10.1257/aer.20180284

Un Partie de campagne also means A Day in the country.

https://www.sensesofcinema.com/2010/cteq/partie-de-campagne/

Devenir (to become) past participle: devenu

Revenir (to come back) past participle: revenu

Monter (to climb) past participle: monté

Rester (to stay) past participle: resté

Sortir (to leave) past participle: sorti

Passer (to pass) past participle: passé .

Venir (to come) past participle: venu

Aller (to go) past participle: allé

Naître (to be born) past participle: né

Descendre (to descend) past participle: descendu

Entrer (to enter) past participle: entré

Rentrer (to re-enter) past participle: rentré

Tomber (to fall) past participle: tombé

Retourner (to turn around) past participle: retourné

Arriver (to arrive / to come) past participle: arrivé

Mourir (to die) past participle: mort

Partir (to leave) past participle: parti

French rule

In French the phrase maladie du pays literally means "disease of the country," the common expression for "homesickness".

Strasburgh, or more commonly Strasbourg, is the capital of the Grand Est region of France, the official seat of the European Parliament. It is located close to the border with Germany in the historic region of Alsace. In Shelley's day, Strasburgh was a well-known center of humanism, at the crossroads of French and German intellectual traditions.

Aiguilles is French for "pinnacle of rock."

In addition to French, it stands to reason that Victor and Elizabeth would have also known German, since it was still the predominant language in Switzerland at the time. English and Latin bear mentioning since they were less common in Switzerland, at least for daily use. Latin also draws a connection to Victor's studies, since much of his course instruction would have been in Latin.

Since Swiss speakers may learn either German or French as their first language, this reminder in the Thomas Copy that Victor's native language is French is important. We have to assume that he speaks in French to his Creature too, and we know from Book II that the Creature learns French as his own first language by hearing the DeLacey family read aloud in the forest.

This website offers a lot of information about genealogy in general, but this particular page has a valuable collection of references specifically relating to French-Canadian genealogy. It is a list of references that were discovered in a Twitter thread called #genchat, where people have conversations about genealogy and offer crowd-sourced help for those who are just beginning research or those who need some help because they have hit, as genealogists fondly say, “a genealogic brick wall.” I have run across some of these sites and resources in my research already, and by cross-referencing, I can tell I have already found some of the best sources (such as the podcast Maple Stars and Stripes, the Catholic Church records of the Drouin collection on Ancestry, 1621-1968, and Library & Archives of Canada) Notes: This has a few resources related to DNA and medical disorders; however, these resources are mostly genealogical and concentrate on finding names and information about specific people in registries. There are a lot of places to look for help if you are not understanding the nature of the French-Canadian family names or pre-noms.

APA citation: ckmccloud. (2017, October 15). #genchat treasures: French-Canadian Resources. Retrieved July 7, 2019, from Beautiful Water Genealogy website: https://beautifulwatergenealogy.wordpress.com/2017/10/15/genchat-treasures-french-canadian-resources/

This article concentrates on 5 different areas of Quebec (Beauce, Terrebonne, Charlevoix, Rimouski and Sanguenay) where hereditary disorders occur at varying rates and for a variety of specific disorders. They investigate how frequent or rare these genes and/ or mutations are in present day populations, keeping in mind the geographic migrations of the founding population. The population is unique because not only did the "founder's effect" occur, but the French-Canadians kept very in-depth genealogical records (mainly through Catholic Church supported baptismal and marriage records and the Church's encouragement of large families), and also due to their historical isolation after their "founding" due to political changes in Europe and the US.

"Because of the structure and demographic history of its population, Quebec, which developed from a small pool of founders and whose rapid expansion was primarily the result of natural increase, constitutes a remarkable laboratory for population genetics studies. The genealogies that can be reconstructed for this context possess levels of completeness and depth rarely obtained elsewhere." Thoughts: these 5 populations are different than the usual studies I have come across which tend to focus just on the areas north of the St. Lawrence River (Saguenay-Lac-St-Jean) where the genetic disease rate is astronomical in comparison to the large immigrant-centered cities of Montreal and Quebec City. The study's authors note their weaknesses as: their relatively small sample size (must have skewed their results), also did not take in the nature of recessive genes in these populations.

the indian express rafale; N

Les Carabiners is a film by French New Wave director Jean-Luc Godard. Although it is unclear from Sontag's description of the film, it's an anti-war film. For more info: http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0056905/.

French course

This mentions the political development in the form of resistance to the beliefs upon Pope's influence in the lives of Christians that was resisted by the French. It shows how Roman Catholic Church was losing its power as a result of Protestant reformations.

French-Canadians is a term used when describing the families that speak French and live mostly in Quebec, Canada. Settling in this area long before the French and Indian War, the French began their settlements in the early 1600's. They were Roman Catholic, and had a distinct culture from their Protestant southern neighbors settling what would be called New England at the same time. These French-Canadians settled modern day Montreal and Quebec City, along with many other municipalities in the hundreds of miles in Eastern Canada and along the St. Lawrence River. They were farmers, priests, traders and voyageurs. Their biggest influence in the United States came when large numbers of French Canadians immigrated to work in the mills of New England in the era of 1870-1920.

Moogk, Peter N. La Nouvelle France: The Making of French Canada: a Cultural History. East Lansing: Michigan State University Press, 2000.

Hugh M. French, a member of the department of geography at the University of Ottawa, states that “nowhere has the frost heave problem been more critical than in the recent design of proposed chilled buried gas pipelines in Arctic regions” in his article entitled “Periglacial Geomorphology in North America: Current Research and Future Trends.” These chilled buried gas pipelines must function under extremely harsh conditions. They will be exposed to sub-zero temperatures in Arctic regions. Any water and vapor will “migrate towards the pipe” causing a frost bulb to form. This frost bulb will lead to the formation of an ice lens or numerous ice lenses which will cause frost heave around the chilled buried pipe (French, 1987). There are currently many techniques to attempt to predict the behavior of a buried pipeline that experiences frost heave. One such attempt to describe this phenomenon was proposed by Selvadurai and Shinde, both members of the American Society of Civil Engineers, in which they describe a detailed model of a frost heave zone caused by its associate frost bulb. They base their model off of the “heave of a frost bulb zone that develops around the pipeline as it transmits its contents such as chilled natural gas” (Selvadurai & Shinde, 1993). 

References

French, H. M. (1987). Periglacial Geomorphology in North America: Current Research and Future Trends. Ecological Bulletins, 5-16. Selvadurai, A. P., & Shinde, S. (1993). Frost Heave Induced Mechanics of Buried Pipelines. American Society of Civil Engineers, 1929-1951.

I like the inclusion of the original French words throughout this piece, because I think they add more depth and dimension to Derrida's argument. For instance, "dessiner" can be translated into English as "depict" but it's more direct translation is "draw." I'm actually curious if the inclusion of the original French was something that Derrida insisted upon in the English version (and that's just me assuming that he wrote this text in his native French...) or whether that was an decision made by the editor(s) of this version? Anyway, these alternative French words and their alternative definitions/English translations have got me thinking here about Byron's earlier annotation, when he undertook defining polysemy...

In French, there's no difference (and now you see the pun!) in how "differance" and "difference" are pronounced, they're homophones, and also there are like two other puns going on in the nonsense language that is French (quatre-vingt, I'm looking at you), none of which translates into English.

I think it's really important for reading Derrida to grasp that this is a guy who loves punning and language play, because pretty much all of this is going to be spinning donuts on the concept of stability.

Study Question:

What was the "Black Legend" and how did other European powers use it to justify their attempts to compete with Spain for empire in the Americas?

Study question

In what ways did the French presence in North America differ from the Spanish?

Week 3 Video Lecture: Collision of Cultures