This paper reports the identification of the importance of the HMGA2 gene in affecting beak shape in Darwin's finches, especially during natural selection that occurred during a drought in 2004-05.

In this summary of genes and traits of hybridizing finches on Daphne Major, the authors established general patterns found in hybridization of the finches on this island: that hybrids are generally intermediate between parental species and often go on to mate with members of the parental species.

They discuss hybridization as a source of genetic variation within existing species and suggest that it can happen through new combinations of genes (additive genetic variance) as well as new patterns of dominance or co-dominance among known genes, or even the establishment of new combinations of genes on chromosomes.

They also note how rare it would be to see hybridization produce birds much larger than parent species, and how unusual occurrences might be necessary to provide the conditions for this to happen.

In this discussion of transgressive segregation, Riesenberg et al. review many studies and conclude that the genetic basis of transgressive segregation is through complementary alleles: new combinations of alleles that provide novel combinations of genotypes.

They find that transgressive segregation occurs most frequently in crosses between closely related species and that niche separation is the most important factor in favoring the establishment of hybrids.

Swarth's paper reorganized the classification of Darwin's finches slightly, particularly with regard to the Geospiza genus.

Lack's book recounts what he learned about Darwin's finches from a visit to the Galapagos in late 1938-39, one of the first visits to the island focused on the finches since Darwin's time. The work includes the classification of the finches as well as notes on speciation, adaptive radiation, and evolution.

Grant and Grant use genetic information to quantify the effects of the gene exchange between populations of birds. They explore two situations: genes that enter a population through mating with a bird of the same species (conspecific) but from a different population on another island; and genes that enter a population from a member of a different species (heterospecific). They conclude that while both types of gene flow are rare, they do occur and have measurable effects on the populations that are complex and change through time rather than being steady.

This paper presents the results of a whole genome study of 120 of Darwin's finches and identifies the ALX1 gene as important in determining beak shape. The study also helps revise the phylogenetic tree of the finches and provides evidence for hybridization as the finches evolved.

This book gives a complete evolutionary history of Darwin's finches. Grant and Grant explain the speciation that occurred and the mechanisms that underpin the formation of different species of finches in the Galapagos Islands.

In the article "How Common is Homoploid Hybrid Speciation?" Schumer et al. indicate that in the study of this topic future research needs to clarify the mechanisms of this type of event. They also propose criteria by which to judge the strength of evidence for this event, arguing that evidence for hybridization's role in speciation is somewhat limited.

Researchers at the Department of Genetics and Pathology in Rudbeck Laboratory studied three vascular endothelial growth-factor receptors (VEGF) responsible for regulating the cardiovascular system. VEGFR1, VEGFR2, and VEGFR3 all function slightly different but together produce cardiovascular development, control endothelial-cell function and the development and survival of blood vessels. They showed the importance of controlling angiogenetic-growth-factors (such as proangiogenic) that are responsible for the formation of blood vessels. Fibronectin is not mentioned by name but other glycoproteins are emphasized for their importance as receptors for VEGF.

Researchers at Harvard were the first to keep a 1cm thick vascularized tissue alive in lab conditions for longer than 6 weeks. They achieved this by co-printing a mixture of bioinks composed of human stem cells, skin cells, cells from umbilical cord vessels, and growth factors. The printed artificial tissue contained a network of embedded blood vessels used for perfusion to keep the tissue alive.

Jordan S. Miller at Rice University highlighted that more clinical trials, proper tissue fabrication sterilization, sufficient vasculature and quality assurance will lead to good manufacturing practice (GMP) and a standard regulatory process. Miller believes overcoming these obstacles will transition the use of 3D printed tissue from research and development to manufacturing and production.

Michael Potente, Holger Gerhardt, and Peter Carmeliet worked with endothelial cells in order to grow blood vessels in a scaffold smaller than any needle is capable of printing. The cells naturally line the inner surface of the vessel and are responsible for repair and growth of new vasculature. Under predetermined conditions the cell have genes that will be expressed to grow vasculature; a process known as angiogenesis.

Christian Frantz, Kathleen M. Stewart and Valerie M. Weaver compiled information on the extracellular matrix (ECM) and its application in tissue engineering

Dvir and colleagues used a specific type of stem cells called pluripotent stem cells that allowed them to grow and develop vascularization as an embryo would. They are the first to take cells from a patient to print a personalized full size and function heart using bioinks. Bioinks are the printing material that replicates the extracellular matrix and has living cells in it.

HW Kang and others at Wake Forest Institute for Regenerative Medicine used microchannels developed at University of Pennsylvania on an integrated tissue-organ printer (ITOP) so that they can produce human-scale mandible and calvarial bone, cartilage and skeletal muscle.

J.S. Miller and others in the Bioengineering Departmnet of University of Pennsylvenia were able to 3D print living cells together to form a tissue. The current problem is that blood and oxygen was unable to get to the center of the tissue leaving a large dead spot in the center called a necrotic core. They solved this problem by engineering in channels for blood to flow as they do through veins to keep a wide variety of cell types alive.

This paper describes the development of a self healing dielectric elastomer. The actuator contains a layer of oil which allows the actuator to maintain dimensional stability even after being punctured multiple times.

This paper describes self‐repairable, high permittivity dielectric elastomers with large actuation strains at low electric fields. The actuators can be operated repeatedly and reversibly at voltages below the first breakdown.

This paper demonstrates the fault-tolerant dielectric elastomer electrodes consisting of elastomers spray coated with carbon nanotubes. The electrodes allows for isolation of the fault after a dielectric breakdown increasing the reliability of the actuator.

This paper describes the change in characteristics of elastomers when pre-strained. The resulting elastomers feature double the strength and speed of previous actuators.

This paper describes the development of a quadrupedal soft robot that moves through fluid pressure.

This paper reviews a specific type of soft robot, elastomeric robots, that are powered by fluid pressure.

This paper defines the characteristics of many types of soft robots. The authors compile a benchmark of these characteristics for future research reference.

This article is a review of the current common designs and applications of "soft-robots". Soft-robots are robots modeled after things that occur in nature. For example, robotics would traditionally use gears and motors to move. .Soft-robotics use designs that mimic human or even insect muscle.

Liu and colleagues created "triggerable tough hydrogels," composed of novel materials that promote a prolonged stay in the gastric system.

The once-monthly smart birth control pill employs this concept of tough materials that will only disintegrate in the presence of chemical stimuli to ensure the contraceptive will stay in the digestive tract longer.

Bellinger and colleagues design a long-term drug delivery system for malaria. They accomplish this by designing an oral capsule that stays in the gastric cavity for up to 14 days.

The smart birth control pill presented in this work builds off of this research and the idea that reducing dosage frequency can be accomplished by increasing the time it stays in the stomach.

A study was performed to investigate scalable doses and the modulation of drug release in the gastrointestinal system.

The author's used most of the characteristics of these dosage forms in the manufacturing of the oral contraceptive.

Snoeck and colleagues determine the time it takes for a dosage form to pass through pigs. This information can help in the design of oral drug delivery methods.

The authors discuss the current alternative contraceptive forms that provide shorter-term protection (about 1 month).

Allen and colleagues discuss the use of contraceptives as a form of family planning in women over the age of 40. Due to being at the end of the reproductive age range, special attributes of the effects of contraceptives for women over 40 need to be considered.

The authors discuss that some contraceptive devices can be implanted outside of the uterus and release hormones for about 3 years, after which they are surgically removed.

The World Health Organization describes the vast impacts of contraceptives, ranging from its role in family planning to its involvement in protecting from sexually transmitted infections, as well as the many different forms of contraceptives that are available.

In this natural experiment, as a result of a hydroelectric dam flooding a rainforest in Venezuela, researchers were able to measure the results of predator removal in isolated communities. Top-down regulation of these communities were discovered and drastic trophic cascades were observed. 

This observational study of 153 sites demonstrated, over the course of 3-15 years, the importance of sea otters to the community structure of the kelp forests of the Aleutian Islands and Alaska. Without sea otters, the kelp forests collapsed due to overgrazing by urchins and other herbivores, leading to implications for numerous other organisms in the system. With sea otter predation on urchins, the kelp system was stable and supported a much higher diversity of organisms at all trophic levels (Fig 3).

The authors highlight 5 lines of reasoning to underscore the importance of predators as top-down controls:

1) the rate of planetary fossil fuel accumulation over time has not been minuscule as compared to the rate of photosynthesis in the same systems;

2) given this, decomposers must be food-limited; otherwise, fossil fuels would build up at higher rates;

3) in terrestrial systems, plants are typically not herbivore-controlled, nor are they regularly destroyed by weather, but are controlled by bottom-up factors such as light, water, and nutrients;

4) terrestrial herbivores are therefore typically not limited by their food supply, even in areas where the primary consumers are overabundant;

5) herbivore populations are therefore controlled by predators.

While ⁴He is formed as a result of radioactive decay, the origin of ³He has been traced to collision with meteorites. Thus a high ³He/⁴He ratio indicates that the rock sample has been collected from a region which has been undisturbed and very ancient. Hence it is expected that OIBs, which are conventionally identified as undegassed, primitive mantle sources, should show high concentrations of ³He. However, this conventional model fails in reality. This is also known as the "Helium Concentration Paradox". This paper aims at self-consistently explain the paradox by measuring the carbon dioxide in mid-ocean ridge basalts (MORBs) and ocean island basalts (OIBs).

This article reports the helium isotope data from ancient basalts located in three islands in the southern pacific ocean. The HIMU (high μ, where μ= U-238/Pb-204) sample collected from this area shows a relatively low and stable helium-3 to helium-4 ratio. While, other enriched samples show a variation in this isotope ratio.

This paper focuses on classifying the deformations of dielectric elastomers. The classification aims to better characterize properties of elastomers under deformation.

This paper is a review of dielectric elastomers, their characteristics and use.

This paper reviews the recent advancements in dielectric elastomers which allow for longer use before dielectric breakdown renders them unusable.

This paper describes a computational model that attempts to demonstrate of an actuator can be programmed to deform in a specific form.

This paper describes the characteristics of polymer actuators when serially stacked. Stacking actuators allows for significant unidirectional contraction.

This paper describes the development of a new type of artificial muscle constructed from high-strength polymer fibers, like fishing line or sewing thread. This new muscle is much more efficient than natural human muscle.

This paper is based on a 25-year review on the field of soft robotics. Actuators, sensors, and flexible energy harvesters are all reviewed.

This paper is the second of a two part series of papers studying and attempting to replicate an octopus tentacle in a soft robot model.

This article reviews the current findings and knowledge in the field of soft robotics.

This paper analyzes possible inspiration for soft-robot designs, such as elephant trunks or octopus tentacles. It also analyzes the benefits of soft-robot designs compared to more rigid traditional robotic designs.

This link does not seem to work, but the data resources of the United States Naval Observatory Astronomical Applications Department can be found at this website.

The Center for Disease Control and Prevention describes existing methods of contraception. In addition to oral pills, other methods include subcutaneous implants, intrauterine devices, vaginal rings, transdermal patches, and injectables.

Statistics show that "the chance of pregnancy in women using oral contraceptive pills is ~9% per year," signifying the need for improving oral contraceptives.

The authors discuss that intrauterine (within the uterus) hormone devices can serve as an alternative contraceptive form, providing protection for 3-6 years.

Prum and colleagues investigated avian phylogeny with a set of data >390,000 bases of genomic sequence from each of 198 species of living birds. This represents all major avian lineages, and two crocodilian outgroups. The results of their divergence time analyses are congruent with the paleontological record and support a major radiation of crown birds following the Cretaceous–Paleogene (K–Pg) mass extinction.

The authors conclude that the distribution of ejecta from the asteroid impact in Chicxulub around the globe provides evidence that the impact triggered the K-Pg mass extinction. The volcanic eruption hypotheses fail to explain the global distribution of ejecta, its composition, the timing of the extinction, and the scale of environmental changes.

G. Wilson’s research concludes that the richness of mammalian species remained relatively stable for most of the last ~1.9 m.y. of the Cretaceous. However, the relative abundance of mammals more closely related to marsupials than to placentals began declining ~500–600 k.y. before the Cretaceous-Paleogene boundary. Based on available fossil evidence, mammalian recovery occurred within ~600–700 k.y. of the Cretaceous-Paleogene event

Clyde et al. used several different dating techniques to more precisely determine the age of volcanic ash deposits across the K-Pg boundary in the Denver Basin. The results were compared to data derived from an analysis of fossil spores and pollen from deposits in the same region. They concluded that the interval between the extinction of the dinosaurs and the appearance of earliest Cenozoic mammals in the Denver Basin lasted ∼185 ky and the ‘fern spike’ lasted ∼1 ky after the K–Pg boundary layer was deposited indicating rapid rates of biotic extinction and initial recovery in the Denver Basin.

The authors conducted a quantitative analysis of megafloral turnover across the K-Pg. They based their work on data from the Williston Basin located in southwestern North Dakota. They relied on previously recovered high-resolution palynological data. Their data confirm that a major plant extinction event occurred in conjunction with the asteroid impact. An estimate of plant extinction, based on species lost that were present in the uppermost 5 m of Cretaceous strata, is 57%.

The authors tested the hypothesis that an impact winter following the asteroid impact selected against slow-growing evergreen species. Using fossil leaf collections crossing a 2-million-year interval spanning the K-Pg boundary, they assessed both carbon assimilation rate and carbon investment using leaf vein density and leaf mass per area as proxies. They learned that species that survive the K-Pg extinction have fast-growth strategies with high assimilation rates and low carbon investment. T

Wilf et al. differentiate between climatic change and asteroid impact effects on biodiversity. They determined there was a cooling trend during the final 0.1 m.y. of the Cretaceous. This likely accounts for some loss of biodiversity from its peak during the earlier warm interval and makes inaccurate the observation that the asteroid alone impact resulted in the loss of 70–90% of macrofossil species.

Mass extinctions often result in the loss of entire branches of the tree of life. Pincelli Hull argues that macroevolution is shaped as much by the species who survive a mass extinction as those that do not. He contents that more than 99% of all species that have ever lived are now extinct and that the losses have not been random.

The authors confirm that current rates of extinction are higher than expected based on the fossil record. He, and other scientists, suggest that a sixth mass extinction may be underway. Conservation efforts must be increased.

In this paper, the authors have shown that only the hottest hotspots with the slowest wave velocity draw from the ancient reservoirs formed during the early days of planet Earth.

There has been a lot of debate regarding the exact location of the chemical reservoirs containing superdeep diamonds. In this research, the authors have done carbon isotope analysis on these diamonds and concluded that the most likely origin is in the lower mantle of Earth.

This research article debunks the popular outcomes of previous geological models of Earth's interior. The author shows data to disprove the previous hypothesis of correlating high R in basalts with excess of helium-3 and existence of primitive gas-rich chemical reservoirs.

In this paper, the authors have performed a series of experiments on diamond samples in order to ascertain the chemical composition and isotope variability of diamonds from the Orapa kimberlite.

There are several existing models of the Earth's formation. In this research, the author points out the discrepancies in the preconceived models and highlights the fact that the chemical compositions of the upper and lower mantle are different.

The author reports a seismic study of old parts of southeast Brazil and provides no concrete evidence of metamorphic rocks which are commonly found in regions occupied by subducted oceanic plates.

In this research, the authors investigate the geochemical processes involving diamond formation within the Siberian cratonic lithosphere. They particularly study the halogen and noble gas geochemistry of fluids trapped in diamonds sampled from this region.

In this research paper, the author presents their data of helium isotope analysis of rock samples from the Yellowstone region. They conclude that the analysis shows no evidence of a deep mantle origin of the collected samples.

Waterhouse et al. investigate the effects of deleting the CTLA-4 from mice. These CTLA-4 deficient mice had disorders of T cell proliferation and quickly died.

Gribben et al. show that CTLA-4 functions to induce cell death of T cells. In biology, many signaling events are also controlled by an off-switch that prevents prolonged or out-of-control signaling. CTLA-4 fulfills this role for T cells.

Krummel and Allison study the effect of CTLA-4 engagement. Their anti-CTLA-4 antibody blocks the receptor without engaging it. On its own, blocking the receptor does not have an effect on T-cell responses. Combined with an activation signal, anti-CTLA-4 allows for enhanced proliferation of T cells. The antibodies introduced here are the same ones used in the treatment of mice in this paper.

Walunas et al. show that CTLA-4 is an inhibitor of T cells. Their approach is to cross-link the receptors together, mimicking the cross-linking that would occur naturally upon receptor engagement. The effect of this is inhibition of T cell proliferation.

Linsley et al. study the differences between binding of CD28 and CTLA-4 to B7 molecules. Though they have similar avidities, they bind the B7 surface molecules using different conformations and kinetics.

Linsley et al. show that CTLA-4, like CD28, binds B7. Using a soluble version of CTLA-4, they show that it binds to B7 with an affinity of 12 nM.

Harper et al. present compelling evidence that CTLA-4 and CD28 share a similar function. They found that the receptors share similarities in structure, sequence, gene location, and expression patterns.

Brunet et al. identify the sequence of the CTLA-4 receptor. They note that it is part of the immunoglobulin and has hydrophobic flanking sequences reminiscent of a membrane-bound protein. They also show that its expression is restricted to activated lymphocytes (T cells and B cells).

In this commentary, Linsley speculates on how the evidence for the roles of CD28 and CTLA-4 fits together. T-cell activation is more complex than scientists originally thought.

In this minireview, Bluestone summarizes the studies showing the nuances of CD28-mediated signaling. He discusses that different B7 molecules result in differing levels of activation, and that CTLA-4 has an inhibitory effect.

In this minireview, Jenkins summarizes the evidence for the role of CTLA-4. It was shown from multiple studies that CTLA-4 has an immunosuppressive effect.

Baskar et al. investigate the effect of B7 expression in tumor cells on the helper T cell immune response. They show that engineered tumor cells generate a helper T cell response and tumor rejection.

Townsend and Allison investigate whether expressing B7 on the surface of a tumor will enhance its rejection. They show that B7 expression results in a cytotoxic T cell immune response.

Chen et al. investigate whether expressing B7 on the surface of a tumor will enhance its rejection. They show a B7-dependent immune response by cytotoxic T cells.

June, Bluestone, Nadler, and Thompson review the research on B7 and CD28. Though they are the most commonly found members, each of these molecules is part of a larger receptor family of related molecules.

Linsley and Ledbetter summarize the research on CD28 and B7 molecules. The costimulatory signal needed for full T-cell activation is supplied through these surface molecules.

Mueller, Jenkins, and Schwartz review the body of research on T cell costimulatory signalling pathways. In the few years after the discovery of the T-cell receptor, which directly binds the antigen to which a T cell is responding, researchers proposed that other signals are needed for T cells to become fully activated. This led to the two-signal model of T-cell activation described in this review.

Votre référence est bien en bib, mais (hormis l'hyperlien), elle est totalement vide : si vou l'aviez exporté à partir de la bibliographie commune sur Zotero, elle aurait été plus fournie et les indices bib auraient alors fait sens.

c'est moins un article, qu'une partie d'un ouvrage commun

si c'est un chapitre, c'est un chapitre

les PUM sont ici la maison d'édition

référence qui aurait mérité d'être éditée dans la bibliographie

référence à intégrer dans la bibliographie

la référence est ici attendue

l'ajout de la référence aurait été nécessaire ici.

ces références auraient pu être intégrées au corps du texte avec les indices bib (sans appel de note)

il est conseillé de citer les revues en utilisant l'italique

Il s,agit davantage d'un billet de blog

idem

des ouvrages de références auraient permi d'enrichir un peu ce passage.

peut-être des références par éléments ? Comme Bush pour l'hypertextualité.

vous avez ici placé la bibliographie du cours, ce qui vous génère une bibliographie immense avec des entrées doubles... Était davantage attendue une bibliographie présentant les ouvrages dont vous vous êtes inspirée pour créer le compte rendu (dont l'ouvrage de référence).

même remarque que pour la référence précédente, de plus un espace manquant entre la page et son numéro

la référence est absente de la bibliographie : elle n'apparaît donc pas correctement

cette référence doit être éditée dans le module bibliographie

idem

cette référence aurait dû être éditée avec un indice bib et se retrouver dans le module bibliographie.

référence ?

la référence aurait dû être citée avec l'indice bib

les articles sont généralement cités entre guillemets

On cite généralement les références entre parenthèse, sans italique, mais cela montre ici que vous vous êtes appropriez l'édition dans stylo !

Vous avez ici placé l'indice bib entre parenthèse : cela créé une double parenthèse. Il faut le laisser entre crochet.

référence ?

ces références aurait mérités une intégration dans la bibliographie

les revues sont citées en italique

guillemets français de préférence

il aurait été attendu que soit citer le titre de l'article.

les revues sont à citer en italique

italique

exemples de références ?

quelques références étaient attendues ici

il y a ici un problème d'encodage (UTF8) dans le bib

indice bib

ibid

indice bib

indice bib

je suis flattée de la référence mais ce n'est pas moi (j'aurai aimé) qui suis derrière cette notion.

indice bib plutôt ici

un chapitre est généralement cité entre guillemets

le nom de l'auteur aurait pu être ôté dans l'indice bib (avec la présence préalable du tiret)

ces références auraient pu être intégrées dans le corps du texte avec les indices bib.

ces références auraient pu être placées dans le corps du texte

on cite en général un article entre guillemets

il s'agit d'une revue

des références inclues en bibliographies auraient été attendues.

où ? quels sont ces notions de réflexions ?

très bonne contextualisation de l'article qui aurait cependant mérité d'être cité (édition, date)

Cette référence aurait été mieux structurée si elle avait été intégrée dans le module bibliographique.

Vous auriez pu citer le principe d'hypertexte et Bush

à citer dans le corps de texte avec les indices bib

ibidem

référence nécessaire dans la bibliographie

références nécessaires

Les articles sont cités en règle générale entre guillemets et les revues en italique

il aurait été préférable de citer directement Doueihi ici

Vous auriez pu citer Vitali-Rosati ici, même si cette affirmation peut apparaître comme trop évidente, il vaut mieux toujours la référencer.

idem

Cette référence aurait due être éditée dans la suite de la phrase avec l'indice bib.

Ces références auraient dues être intégrées dans la bibliographie et citées avec les indices bib.

il manque un espace entre le mot et l'indice bib.

Pour citer un article, on le met en général entre guillemets afin de le différencier du nom de la revue qui est en italique

This study reports the tribological properties of graphene-lubricated 440C steel. At medium loads and under dry nitrogen environments, graphene is found to maximize its performance as a solid lubricant.

This study details the first experimental evidence of reproducible superlubricity at the microscale under ambient conditions. The self retraction of graphite mesas upon shearing is described as a direct evidence of ultra-low friction between the incommensurate surfaces. The variation in superlubric conditions with contact area is also described. A similar observation is made in the current study as well.

The authors demonstrate an experimental set up for finding friction between multi-walled nanotube layers using a nanomanipulator and insitu TEM imaging. Ultra-low friction is observed between the core and outer nanotube layers in a dry environment, which is similar to the superlubricity conditions in the present study.

The authors report bridging the gap between macroscale and nanoscale laws of friction. A linear relationship was found to exist between the friction force and contact area at both regimes. In the present study, authors also observed a similar phenomenon.

This study reports measurements of friction as a function of commensurability of the contacting surfaces using ultra-high vacuum scanning tunneling microscopy. Authors have used atomically clean surfaces to experimentally check the superlubric conditions. They found a match between experimental results and theoretical predictions.

This study compares the nanotribological properties of atomically thin sheets of 2D materials such as graphene, molybdenum disulfide, boron nitride, and niobium diselenide using friction force microscopy. The dependence of friction on the number of atomic sheets and substrate effect are also reported.

This book provides an overview of the theory and practice of tribology, that is, the science of interacting surfaces in motion.

The authors show that rats administered with 2-deoxy-D-glucose (2-DG) increase their food intake, whereas this is abolished in animals with ZI lesions. 2-DG is a modified glucose molecule that inhibits the breakdown of glucose, leading to low levels of blood glucose. This increases food intake in order to restore blood glucose levels. The reduced food intake in 2-DG-treated rats with ZI lesions suggests that the ZI is necessary for food intake in response to low blood glucose.

This paper was one of the first to show that two populations of neurons in the arcuate nucleus of the hypothalamus have opposing effects on food intake. They demonstrated that opotogenetic activation of AgRP-expressing neurons increases food intake, whereas activation of POMC-expressing neurons decreases food intake.

Dreyfus et al. used locus coeruleus, a region in the brain, to study neurotransmitter expression in brain. His group was able to show that the catecholamines can be expressed both in culture and in animals, making the locus coeruleus an excellent system to study the plasticity in brain.

Given that the plasticity occurs during development, the authors tested whether the plasticity can be observed in mature neurons as well. The authors performed these experiments in the ganglia of young and old rats and assessed the changes in the neurotransmitter, substance P.

Substance P had a significant increase in expression at young rats and at 6-month-old rats but not 2-year-old rats.

Jonakait et al. show that the loss of expression is not confined to the rat gut, but also observed in the cranial sensory and dorsal root ganglia of the embryonic rats. Here the authors have shown that the expression of catecholamine is lost for a certain time period during the development.

These studies suggest that, irrespective of embryonic origin, the loss in expression of neurotransmitters, catecholamine, and noradrenergic occur during development.

Jonakait et al. used the embryonic neural cells in the rat gut to understand the expression of noradrenergic cells.

It was shown that these neural cells exhibit several characteristics of noradrenergic cells at embryonic stages. The authors wanted to know if there were a change in expression levels of noradrenergic during the development. For a certain time period during the development, the expression of noradrenergic is lost; however, the uptake system of norepinephrine is present and functional.

In this review, Patterson discusses how we can manipulate the neurons’ decision to produce certain chemicals by altering the environmental factors. This manipulation can be performed during development by changing the fluid or culture conditions in which the neurons are growing.

This review by T. Hökfelt et al. discusses the identification of new neurotransmitters that are peptidergic in nature. Peptidergic refers to the neurons that release small peptides as their neurotransmitters.

The article provides a snapshot of peptidergic neurons identified in the nervous system, namely, the brain, spinal cord, and peripheral nervous system.

In this paper by Voineagu et al., the authors found that there is lower enrichment of prefrontal genes in autistic brains, suggesting that there's dysregulation in this region.

Schmader, Johns, and Barquissau found that the level of endorsement of the stereotype that men are better than women at math was a moderating variable for gender performance.

Women who more strongly endorsed the stereotype performed worse.

Cohen et al. found that an initial values affirmation intervention could have long-lasting positive effects.

Martens et al. showed that values affirmation was effective under laboratory conditions.

Creswell et al. identified a physical reaction to stereotype threat, and found that values affirmation reduces this reaction.

Cohen et al. performed a large scale examination of the efficacy of values affirmation in an authentic classroom environment. They tested whether a simple intervention could reduce the effects of stereotype threat for African American students. 

They found that having students complete a short writing exercise, in which they wrote about a value they found important (values affirmation), reduced the gap in performance between African American students and other students.

Good, Aronson, and Inzlicht assessed whether specific kinds of mentoring could reduce the effects of stereotype threat in female, minority or low-income seventh-graders.

They found that students paired with a college-student mentor who either 1) encouraged them to view intelligence as malleable, or 2) told them to attribute academic difficulties to the novelty of the educational setting, performed much better than students who did not get this framing.

Using more interactive teaching methods has been shown to improve conceptual understanding for students in college-level physics compared to traditional lecture-based teaching.

Interactive teaching has also been shown to reduce the gap in performance between women and men.

Kost, Pollock, and Finkelstein performed the initial assessment of the gender achievement gap in college students taking introductory physics at the University of Colorado at Boulder.

They found that most (but not all) of the gender achievement gap, could be attributed to previous preparation in the field.

Schmader, Johns, and Forbes suggest that stereotype threat might affect women's performance through three interconnected mechanisms:

1) It causes a physical stress response that can impair some aspects of brain function, reducing the baseline level of mental resources.

2) It causes women to actively monitor their performance, taking valuable mental resources away from the assigned task.

3) It causes women to actively repress negative feelings and thoughts, which also consumes mental resources.

Spencer, Steele, and Quinn performed some of the original experiments showing that the stereotype that men are better at math than women affected women's performance on math tests.

In these studies, the authors examined the role of the neurotransmitter substance P in nerve ganglia. The authors confirmed that the activity of substance P is dependent on sodium currents, changes within the cell, and impulsive activity.

The book chapter introduces the concept of gateway hypothesis – a model to inform how teenagers initiate and progress in the usage of illicit drugs. The chapter addresses these crucial questions from various fronts – neurobiology, animal studies, and epidemiological studies.

The article addresses a fundamental question: is nicotine a habit-forming drug or an addictive drug? The authors performed experiments in mice and concluded that nicotine shares several biological aspects with the drugs of abuse.

The review presents the available evidence that the drugs of abuse can alter the synaptic plasticity mechanisms in the dopaminergic circuit, the key pathway to processing reward in the brain.

The authors show that the cocaine, a drug of abuse, can activate genes at core histones, which can lead to a restructuring of chromatin. This restructuring could have an effect on long-lasting changes in the animal, for instance, modulating the body movements

The authors show that the cAMP response element binding protein (CREB)-binding protein (CBP) acetylate histones at the FosB promoter in the mouse striatum, thereby regulating the responses to cocaine.

The authors confirmed this finding by repeating this experiment in mice lacking a copy of the CBP gene. These mice exhibited a decrease response to cocaine than the animals that had an intact copy of the CBP gene.

In this letter, Paine notes the importance of predators to community stability not only to the system that he studied (the intertidal of the Pacific Northwest) but also that of other simple or complex systems worldwide.

A discussion of food webs, trophic relationships, species connectedness, and whether community structure and stability could be modeled based on these ideas.

This seminal paper on the indirect effects of predation in freshwater rivers demonstrated that the trophic cascades previously seen in marine and terrestrial systems also held true for river ecosystems.

Kendrick and colleagues measured GABA in the ZI in live sheep. They found that in food-deprived animals, GABA was increased in the ZI upon the sight and ingestion of food. This response did not occur when a non-food object was presented.

The authors performed retrograde mapping from the PVT and showed that neurons in the ZI directly project to the PVT. These cells were shown to express the protein cocaine- and amphetamine-related transcript (CART).

In this seminal Nature paper, Crick and co-workers demonstrate that a group of three bases codes for one amino acid; the code does not overlap; the sequence of bases is read from a fixed starting point; and the code is degenerate.

This review paper is an extended version of the paper you've read here with sections dedicated to similar questions such as: "Is the code universal?" and "Is the code overlapping?"

Von Ehrenstein and Lipmann demonstrate the genetic materials of a rabbit (a mammal) and E. coli (a bacterium) are compatible, suggesting the genetic code is universal!

Weedon et al. concluded that the HMGA2 was one of several that has a role in influencing height in adult humans.

Introgression, the movement of a gene from one species into the gene pool of another, has been known to speed up a population's response to an evolutionary selective pressure. It does this by increasing genetic diversity.

Grant and Grant documented recurring introgressive hybridization between medium ground finches and small ground finches.

Fatemifar et al. (2013) showed that HMGA2 is associated with craniofacial features, such as the width of the eye region, the width of the lower part of the nose, and the height of the mid-brow prominence.

Zhou (1995) found that, in mice, mutant alleles sometimes arise from deleted DNA or from chromosomal inversions.

When these mutations cause the protein Hmgi-c to inactivate and not be expressed in mice, the result in dwarfism. This protein is associated with the HMGA2 gene.

Pfannkuche and colleagues (2009) found that HMGA2 is an important factor in embryonic stem cells and seems to magnify other factors, such as the regulation of body height in humans, the repression of certain genes, and several other functions.

Brown and Wilson (1956) argued that character displacement was a common part of geographical speciation. They explained that displacement happened most often as a product of genetic and ecological interaction when species first met.

Grant and Grant (2006) reported that the finch species Geospiza fortis diverged in beak size from one of its competitors, G. maguirostris. This divergence happened on an isolated Galapagos island 22 years after G. maguirostris arrived to share a habitat with G. fortis.

Grant and Grant (1994) explored hybridization among finch species over 17 years. They concluded that hybrid traits were morphologically intermediate, which indicated the parent genes contributed to the offspring phenotype equally. Hybrids also varied more phenotypically.

Abzhanov and colleagues (2004) analyzed various growth factors that were known to be expressed during craniofacial development of birds. When looking at Darwin's finch species, some factors showed simply showed no correlation while other factors showed a correlation with beak size, but not beak shape.

However, researchers did find that the expression of the Bmp4 molecule had strong association with both beak size and shape.

The previous tree from Lamichhaney and colleagues in 2015 showed that the initial split between warbler finches and other finches happened 900,000 years ago. Rapid divergence of ground and tree finches occurred 100,000 - 300,000 years ago.